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An Introduction to Medical Biophysics
Parveen Parkash
CHAPTER 1:
Osmotic Pressure, Surface Tension and Viscosity: Important Physical Forces Operating in Human Body
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
Osmosis
Osmotic Pressure
Determination of Osmotic Pressure from Depression of Freezing Point
Determination of Osmotic Pressure of Biological Fluids
Modification of van't Hoff's Equation
Units of Osmotic Pressure
Maintenance, Regulation and importance of Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic Behaviour of Plasma Proteins
Role of Plasma Oncotic Pressure in Tissue Fluid Formation
Maintenance of Cell Volume
Maintenance of Body Fluids Osmolality by Kidney
Variations of Osmosis
SURFACE TENSION
Definition
Factors Affecting Surface Tension
Temperature
Solutes
Colloidal Surface
Density
Determination of Surface Tension
Capillary Method
Hanging Plate Method
Traubes Stalagmometer Method
The Gibbs-Thomson Principle
Biomedical Importance of Surface Tension
Emulsifying Action of Bile Salts
Hay's Test
Role of Surfactant in Lungs
Confer Alveolar Stability
Prevents Alveolar Exudation
Sighs and Surfactant
Reduces the Work of Breathing
Surface-Active Disinfectants
Efficient Absorption
Surface Tension Model of Muscle Contraction
Surface Tension of Plasma
Capillary Action and Its Clinical Applications
VISCOSITY
Definition
Units of Viscosity
Classification of Fluids Showing Viscous Properties
Newtonian Fluids
Non-newtonian Fluids
Viscoelastic Fluids
Types of Viscosities
Relative Viscosity
Kinematic Viscosity
Apparent Viscosity
Anomalous Viscosity
Intrinsic Viscosity
Limiting Viscosity Number
Factors Affecting Viscosity
Density
Temperature
Shape and Size of Solute Particles
Electrolytes
Hydrogen Bonds
Colloidal State
Viscometers
Denning and Watson's Viscometer
Hess Viscometer
Ubbelohde Viscometer
Couette Viscometer
Rolling Ball Viscometers
Ostwald Viscometer
Biomedical Importance of Viscosity
Viscosity of Blood
Viscosity of Synovial Fluid
Viscosity of Gels
CHAPTER 2:
Pressure in Fluids: Its Measurement and Implications
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
STANDARD UNITS OF PRESSURE
REFERENCE POINTS FOR MEASURING BLOOD PRESSURE
DIRECT AND INDIRECT METHODS FOR MEASURING BLOOD PRESSURE
Mercury Manometer
Electronic Pressure Transducer
Catheter
Indirect Arterial Pressure Measurement
PRESSURE IN HOLLOW ORGANS OF THE BODY
BLOOD PRESSURE PROFILE
PRESSURE VOLUME RELATIONSHIP IN THE HOLLOW ORGANS
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
DEEP SEA DIVING
CHAPTER 3:
Biomechanics of Muscle Contraction
MUSCLE STRUCTURE
MUSCLE CONTRACTION
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONTRACTING MUSCLE
Velocity of Shortening
Tension
Latent, Period
Force-Velocity Curve
Hill's Equation and Force-Velocity Relationship
Length-Tension Relationship
Recording of Length-Tension Relationship of the Whole Muscle
Length-Tension Relationship of Individual Muscle Fibre
Length-Tension Curve of Skeletal Muscle Versus Cardiac Muscle
Significance of Length-Tension Relationship
MECHANICAL ANALOGUE OF MUSCLE
Contractile Component (CC)
Series Elastic Component (SEC)
Parallel Elastic Component (PEC)
ISOMETRIC CONTRACTION
Recording of Isometric Contraction
ISOTONIC CONTRACTION
Recording of Isotonic Contraction
Mechanics of Isotonic Contraction
Effect of Changing Preload on Isotonic Contraction
Effect of Changing Afterload on Isotonic Contraction
Importance of Preload and Afterload in Cardiac Muscle Contraction
LEVER SYSTEM OF THE BODY
Classification of Levers
Torque
WORK OUTPUT DURING MUSCLE CONTRACTION
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY OF CONTRACTING MUSCLE
POWER
CHAPTER 4:
Membranes: Structure and Bio physical Properties Including Transport Processes Across the Membranes
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
Membrane Proteins
Functions of Membrane Proteins
Forces Responsible for the Organisation of Lipid Bilayer
Glycocalyx
Asymmetry in Membranes
Fluidity of the Membranes
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MEMBRANES
Membrane Capacitance
Membrane Resistance
Equivalent Circuit for a Cell Membrane
Response of Membrane Capacitance and Resistance to a Pulse of Current
Specific Resistance and Conductance of Membrane
TRANSPORT PROCESSES ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE
Classification of Transport Processes
Simple Diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated Diffusion
Active Transport
Free Energy Change During Simple and Facilitated Diffusion and Active Transport
Common Features of Facilitated Diffusion and Active Transport
Endocytosis and Exocytosis
Antibiotic Mediated Ion Transport
BIOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES EMPLOYED FOR INVESTIGATION OF MEMBRANES
CHAPTER 5:
Biopotentials, Bioelectricity and their Applications in Medical Sciences (ECG, EEG, EMG, ERG)
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
ACTION POTENTIAL
Types of Action Potentials
Subthreshold Potential
Threshold Potential
Pacemaker Potential
Rhythmic Action Potential
Electrotonic Potential
Graded Potential
Receptor/Generator Potential
Compound Action Potential
Piezoelectric Potential
Action Potentials Related to Synapse
Properties of An Action Potential
Properties; of Graded Potential
Effect of Increasing Potassium Concentration Extracellularty on Resting Membrane and Action Potential
Current of Injury
ELICITATION AND RECORDING OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL
Strength-Duration Relationship
Stimulators
Recording of Action Potential
Microelectrodes or Intracellular Electrodes
Gross Metal Electrodes
Stimulus Isolation Unit
Noise
Noise Attenuation
The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
Voltage-Clamping
Patch-Clamping
CLINICALLY IMPORTANT BIOELECTRIC SIGNALS
Electrocardiography
Evoked Potential
Electromyography
Electro-Olfactography
Electroretinography
Electro-Oculography
Electronystagmography
Clinical Applications of Bioelectric Signals
CHAPTER 6:
Flow Dynamics: Biophysicai Principles and their Applications
PHYSICAL BASIS OF FLOW OF FLUIDS IN HUMAN BODY
Forces Acting on Blood During Circulation
Interrelationship Among Pressure, Flow and Resistance
Resistance
Conductance
Impedence
POISEUILLE'S LAW
FACTORS REGULATING FLOW IN BLOOD VESSELS
Distensibility
TYPES OF FLOW IN BLOOD VESSELS
Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow
SPECIAL FEATURES OF BLOOD FLOW
Fahreus-Lindqvist Effect
Plasma Skimming
Magnus Effect
Blood Flow Through Stenotic Orifice
VELOCITY OF BLOOD FLOW
Methods For Measuring Blood Flow
Electromagnetic Flowmeter
Ultrasonic Doppler Flowmeter
FLOW DYNAMICS OF GASES
BULK FLOW
CHAPTER 7:
X-rays: Production, Clinical and Experimental Applications
PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS
The Cathode
Anode
Metal Housing of X-ray Tube
Rectification
Intensity and Quality of X-rays
Working of X-ray Machine
Heat Dissipation from the Anode
Tube Life
Mechanism of X-ray Production
Properties of X-rays
APPLICATIONS OF X-RAYS
X-rays in Radiography and Fluoroscopy
X-rays in Computed Tomography
Scanning Unit
Processing Unit
Viewing Unit
Storage Unit
X-rays In Therapy
X-rays in Teletherapy
X-rays For Determination of Structure of Biomolecules
Units of X-Radiation
CHAPTER 8:
Radioisotopes: Properties, Production, Handling, Detection, Diagnostic, Experimental and Therapeutic Applications
DETECTION
Detection of High Energy Radiation
Gas-Filled Detectors
Scintillation Detectors (Counters)
Associated Electronic
Semiconductor Detectors
In Vitro Radiation Detection
Weil-type NaI (T1) Scintillation Detectors
Liquid Scintillation Detectors
In-vivo Detection of X- or γ-Ray Emitting Radionuclides
Organ Uptake Device
Organ Scanning Devices
Practical Aspects of Counting Radioactivity
Problems Encountered During In-vivo Detection of Radionuclides
APPLICATIONS OF RADIOISOTOPES
Radioisotope as a Tracer
Uses of Radioisotopic Tracers
Radioisotopes for Organ Scanning
Radioisotopes for Therapeutic Purpose
Internally Administered Radionuclides
Radiations from External Sources
Radioisotopes in Sterilisation of Food and Equipment
Radioisotopes as Mutagens
Radioisotopes for Radlodating
Radioisotope for Radioimmunoassay
Radioisotopes for Autoradiography
CHAPTER 9:
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Basis and Applications
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF MRI
COMPONENTS OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE EQUIPMENT
MRI OF MAIN COMPONENTS OF BODY
MRI of Organs
Brain
Spine
Liver
Cardiovascular System
Breast
Female Genital Tract
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MRI
Advantages
Disadvantages
CHAPTER 10:
Microscopes: Physical Principles and Applications
PHASE CONTRAST MICROSCOPE
INTERFERENCE MICROSCOPE
POLARISING MICROSCOPE
ULTRAVIOLET MICROSCOPE
FLUORESCENCE MICROSCOPE
X-RAY MICROSCOPE
X-ray Scanning
TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
Scanning Electron Microscope
HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
CELL AS SEEN UNDER ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
Plasma Membrane
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Mitochondria
Golgi Complex
Filaments and Microtubules
Lysosomes
NUCLEUS
Nuclear Envelope
Nucleoli
Chromatin
SCANNING LASER MICROSCOPE
CHAPTER 11:
Macromolecules: Conformation and Structure
PRIMARY STRUCTURES OF PROTEINS
SECONDARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
Alpha Helix
Beta Sheets
BETA BENDS (REVERSE TURNS)
Supersecondary Structures Motifs
TERTIARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
QUATERNARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
ATTRACTIVE AND REPULSIVE FORCES IN PROTEINS
Attractive Forces
Covalent Bonds
Coordinate Covalent Bonds
Ionic Bonds
Hydrogen Bonds
van der Waals Attractive Forces
Hydrophobic Interactions
Repulsive Forces
Electrostatic Repulsion
van der Waals Repulsive Forces
METHODS EMPLOYED IN THE DETERMINATION OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE
Determination of Amino Acid Composition of Polypeptide
Identification of Amino and Carboxyl Terminal Residues
Detection of Amino Acid from NH2-Terminal Side
Detection of Amino Acid from the C-Terminal Side
Fragmentation of Polypeptide Chain
Identification of Sequences of Peptide Fragments
Determination of Primary Structure by Edman Reaction
Determination of Protein Primary Structure by DNA Sequencing
Determination of Helical Content of Polypeptide
Determination of Secondary Structure Within Protein in Solution
Determination of Conformation Changes Through Viscosity
Determination of Structure of Proteins with High Molecular Weight
Modelling Protein Structure Through X-ray Diffraction
Prediction of Protein Structure Through Computation
FIBROUS AND GLOBULAR PROTEINS
Fibrous Proteins
Globular Proteins
STRUCTURES OF BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT PROTEINS
Myoglobin
Immunoglobulin G
Insulin
Cytochrome C
Ribonuclease
DENATURATION AND PROTEIN STRUCTURAL CHANGES
Denaturating Agents
Consequences of Denaturation
Refolding of Denaturated Proteins
INDEX
TOC
Index
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