Philosophies of EducationUNIT 1

It is a scientific, systemic inquiry about the ultimate reality in the universe; it is the basis for understanding man. Etymologically, the term, ‘Philosophy’ has been derived from two Greek words: Philos means love, Sophia means wisdom. It is the loving and searching for wisdom and truth.

Education is the modification of child's behaviour, whereas philosophy shows the way to be followed by educators in the modification of child's behaviour. Education is a laboratory in which the philosophic theories and speculations are tested, thus education will be said as, ‘applied philosophy’. Philosophy is wisdom, education transmits wisdom from one generation to the another.

A philosopher arrives at the truth after a great deal of contemplation on the real nature of the universe, man, his destiny and lays down aims, ideals and values and then he tries to live in accordance with them.

He wants others to be converted his beliefs and live according to them, thus it can be achieved through education, which is the best mean for the propagation of his philosophy. Education becomes more prominent than philosophy as action speaks louder than words or beliefs. Beliefs (philosophy) are vital, thus it results in a prominent educational efforts.

Philosophers reflected their views in their educational schemes. Most of the educational movements of the world own their origin to the philosophical schools of different philosophers. When a philosopher wishes to spread his ideals, beliefs, he formulates a scheme of education based on his philosophy, e.g. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, etc., European philosophers like Locke, Rousseau, Spencer etc., were great educators. The great thinkers and philosophers of India are Buddha, Tagore and Gandhi.

Philosophy provides aims of education, it determines the curriculum (course of study), methods of teaching, school discipline, role of teacher, school problems etc., philosophy will continuously influences and determines both the matter and the method of education. Thus philosophy contributes to the development of the educational theory and practice.

Philosophy is the determining force in laying down the aims of education. Aims of education (moral, vocational, intellectual and spiritual) are based on views and ideals, beliefs, values, standards of philosopher. The philosopher struggles hard with the mysteries of life and arrives at his solution after mature reflection and thinking. He will suggest the ways and means of dealing with them through educational efforts. The educator selects the material for instruction, determines the methods of procedures for the attainment of goals. Thus the entire educational system proceeds with its foundation on sound philosophy, e.g.

Curriculum is the sum total of all the activities and experiences provided by the school to its pupil to achieve the aims of education. The philosophy determines the content and discipline that subject will promote curriculum. It is not fixed at all times, it changes in accordance with philosophy. Thus, curriculum differs with different schools of philosophy according to their own beliefs. Thus education needs leaders, who hold a sound comprehensive philosophy through which they can convince others and who can direct its consistent application to the formation to the function of appropriate curriculum.

The textbooks must reflect the prevailing values of life fixed by philosophy, an appropriate textbook must be in accordance with norms of knowledge which the children are expected to know and accepted ideals of the society and the prevailing philosophy of education and the nation 4as a whole. Then only it will serve the desired purpose. The persons who select the textbooks must have standard of judgment, which should enable them to select the right type of books based on standard, supplied by philosophy. Through textbooks the aims of education are realised. It will meet needs of ideals and principles.

Philosophy is a way of thinking and a way of working. Method is the process of establishing and maintaining contact between the pupil and the subject matter. Every system of education has its own method of teaching based on its own philosophical background. Method is the procedure through which aims of education are realised. Thus different schools of philosophy have laid down their own methods of teaching, e.g.

Philosophy determines the nature and forms of discipline. Discipline is nothing but the conduct of the pupil. Internal discipline concerned with inner code of conduct of the individuals sustain a nation. Philosophy and education are inseparably linked, they exist together, philosophy leads and education follows the path shown by philosophy. Discipline is mainly governed by the aim of education.

Teacher is the backbone of the entire process of education. Philosophy of life should be in perfect consonance with the philosophy; the educational system is based on successful teachers. A teacher needs the study of philosophy as a person and as a teacher. A teacher is also having his/her own ideas and beliefs. Teacher influences the personality of the child and instills in him a new outlook and a new way of life, e.g.

Evaluation is the pivot of education system. It determines the extent to which aims and objectives are being attained, but also helps to bring about an improvement in the techniques and procedures of education. There is a close relationship between objectives, learning experiences and evaluation. It is therefore legitimate to ascertain how far our evaluation programme is in conformity with the philosophy that has determined the aims and objectives of education, its curriculum and its methodology. Evaluation takes into account the growth of the child as a whole individual and in his total environment. Philosophical analysis, which is responsible for the movement of objectivity in the field of relationship between philosophy and environment.

A philosophy of nursing education includes beliefs and values with regard to man in general and specifically man as the learner, teacher, nurse and the client and the beliefs about health, illness, society, nursing, and learning etc.

Religion should serve as the primary integrating factor in the development of the curriculum in a school of nursing. The principles of religion and morality are unchanging. By this stable truth, the nurse will be able to meet intelligently the changing conditions of modern social living. Religion provides the motives for the nurse influenced by religious principles.

Through understanding of moral principles governing man's conduct and action leading to the nurses to study ‘ethics’ (it is the philosophic science of human acts) from the point of the view of the order they should have regarding one another and man's ultimate destiny which they ought to help him achieve and it also teaches the individual how to judge accurately the moral goodness or badness of any action. Nurse has to apply right conduct, in various situations of her daily life based on a sound moral character, adequate understanding and habitual application of proper moral standards. Nurse has to develop right conscience.

To provide a systematic development and training of the intellect, so that it may be enlightened, disciplined and disposed to function in accordance with the purpose for which it was created.

Nurse must be able to function as a mature, self-dependent and responsible individual and must be able to relate well to other people. It shows emotional maturity where by all her emotional needs were met.

To promote the harmonious development physi-cal needs also has to be met, to preserve her body and the essentials of her health. Nurse should have knowledge of how to guide the others, who need assistance in learning, how to keep well or how to improve health.

Nurse is a social being, who must pass her life in society in relation to which, she has both privileges and obligations. Nursing is linked with social culture, in which nursing activities are carried out. The nursing student should be taught, to use her will power in gaining control of her own impulses. To acquire self-mastery and to be a virtuous member of a social group nurse practices democratic principles.

Nursing is a social institution where,

“The unique function of the nurse is to assist the individual, sick or well, in the performance of those activities contributing to health or its reco-very or to peaceful death thus he would perform unaided, if he had the necessary strength, will or knowledge and to do this in such a way as to help him to gain independence as rapidly as possible”.

Three phases are included in nursing education.

Spread information of nursing to the prospective candidates, publicity and guidance about nursing education, nursing services, working conditions of nurses, career development, job avenues, opportunities and responsibilities of nurses has to be given. Booklets or brouchers can be developed like ‘nursing as a career’ ‘profile of a nurse’. The prospective students can introspect, think and make a right decision. Careful intelligent planning is required to develop personal and professional satisfaction.

Nurse educators have to take care to produce skilled and efficient nurses in order to provide qualitative care, select the candidate who is having interest for admission into nursing is the first step. Nurse educators monitor continuously; implement the curriculum which consists of theoretical and practical hours of training in a critical manner, give equal weightage to develop the right attitudes, social and moral values, human relations, skills, ethics, civic sense, professional etiquette to have perfect background in nursing. Along with the technical skills, the personal qualities of the students also have to be promoted. Evaluation of students' performance is essential.

After completion of the nursing training, nurse has to register their names in professional organization. The nurse still needs to be educated either in the form of in-service or continuing education. The teacher has to develop teaching material and conduct of research to improve the standards of nursing. Post-nursing education consists of orientation, supervision, in-service education, evaluation and re-registration. New graduates need to have a well-planned and organised orientation to the area of their posting. They must be oriented to the staff, equipment, working conditions and clients with whom they have to work. They need guidance and supervision in achieving professional standards. Nurses on the job must be evaluated periodically in-terms of knowledge and performance and in-service education needs to be planned on the basis of their needs.

The basic purpose of nursing education is to prepare the nurse who, after completion of the educational programme, is able to plan for and give comprehensive nursing care and health guidance to individuals and families according to their needs. The nurse must be prepared intellectually and morally enlightened and technically proficient. Nurse should be competent in teaching, oriented to community health and research-minded. Nurse must have the necessary knowledge, principles, skills and attitudes which are essential to professional nursing practices. Nursing students must develop competent health team members with sound judgment, intellectual and moral enlightenment, professional competence and expertise. The nurse educators should guide the learning activities of students by acting as facilitators. The nursing education and training programme is to give a broad based preparation with capacity building in students for doing the required nursing jobs with appropriate nursing interventions. The teachers should concentrate on the essential facts, skills and attitudes. The teachers should base their teaching on the nursing needs out of the real health problems of the community and in accordance with the job responsibility.

Records of civilization in ancient India exist from 2500 BC when the Indus valley civilization flourished. The sacred ‘books of learning’ the Veda were produced in the Vedic period from 1500 BC. The history of nursing in India goes back through the centuries to about 1500 BC. The beginnings are shrouded in the mist of ancient myths (Wilkinson A. 1965).

Florence Nightingale emphasized on cognitive knowledge and skills (1909). Preparation of nurses in Florence Nightingale's school of nursing at St. Thomas hospital included a years training with instruction by the Matron, the ward sister and the physician before assignment for 2-year hospital apprenticeship experience, during which students were granted stipends. These students were called ‘ordinary probationers’. Those who did not receive stipend, but paid tuition for the first year were educated for higher positions and were called ‘lady nurses’. Nightingale model of nursing education, the hospital based diploma school appears to have been the first model in almost all countries.

The immediate problem was not to build a finished educational structure but to clear the ground, to provide decent conditions for both patients and nurses, and to lay the foundations of an adequate nursing service.

Every hospital wanted to have a school of its own. The number of schools of nursing increased tremendously. The young nursing profession organised its forces and tried its level best to control over expansion with the resulting slump in standards. Though laws were passed, variations existed in admission standards, in programs of instruction and also in the product of these schools.

National League of Nursing Education under the leadership of Miss A Adelaide Nutting published standard curriculum for nursing schools in 1917. Nursing students' preparation was service oriented rather than education oriented, as nurse educators did not hold advanced educational preparation. Gold Mark report identified many inadequacies in the education and concluded that advanced educational preparation was essential for teachers, administrators and public health nurses.

1940s–1960s: This period is considered as basic science era.

The classic nursing curriculum model is the disease-based model, cross-gridded with body 11systems. In the curriculum the principles of nursing action lies in the disease itself –

Disease or injury → Medical plan →Nursing care.

Impact of Abdellah on curriculum development:

Abdellah's work was the stimulus to 2 quiet different approaches to nursing–a problematic approach and an operational approach. The problematic approach led to 2 modes of care –

The selected problems may be patient problems or nursing problems. Often curriculum fail to differentiate between patient needs and patient problems. Such curricula often combine problematic and operational approaches, seeking solutions to patient problems and achievement of predetermined goals for patient needs. The principle of the curriculum is reflexive and rests on the interaction between man and his environment. A problematic mode allows for variance from patient to patient and from nursing act to nursing act. In the problematic method, each problem is considered to be unique and to have its own unique environment.

Diploma, College, Masters and Doctoral pro-grammes concentrated on clinical specialization and on clinical nurse specialists. Many nursing models emerge during this period forges: Nurses role to promote behavioral stability of the patient (Johnson), Smith, Germaine and Gibbs (1971) identified specific nursing goals; prevention intervention model (Hodgman 1973) etc.12

The model course around nursing acts. The curriculum is operational when focus is placed on selection among nursing acts. The curriculum is logistic when the acts are seen as an invariant sequence of steps to be followed with every patient for, e.g. nursing process. In either case the focus is on what the nurse does, cognitive, psychomotor or affective behaviour, basing on action principle steaming from the motivation to the act by the nurse agent. Nurse patient relationship (or lando's) promotes the sharing between nurse and the patient.

Refers to the curriculum that takes a single subject matter in its entirely as the care of the educational programme. The most common subject matters are man and health.

Aim is a predetermined goal, which inspires the individual to attain it through appropriate activities. As education is a planned and purposeful activity, the aims are necessary in giving direction to the education.

Educational aims are correlative to the ideals of life. There are two ultimate aim of education–individual and social; of all other aims, these two are the most important because the remaining aims of education stress either the one or the other of these two. An individual is born with certain potentialities or natural endowments. It is the task of the education to develop them into a distinct individual personality. But personality development does not take place in a vacuum. It takes place in associating with others in co-operative living and in working together for the welfare of the group or society. We have to decide whether the individual and social aspects are totally contradictory to each other or is it possible to strike a balance between the two. In other words, it is to be decided whether the individual owes the existence to society or the society exists for the individual.

Rig Veda: Education is something which makes a man self-reliant and selfless.

M Gandhi: By education, mean, an all round drawing out of the best in child and men–body, mind and spirit.

Aristotle: Education is, the creation of a sound mind in a sound body.

Pestalozzi: Education is, the natural harmonious and progressive development of man's innate powers.14

Froebel: Education is the process through which the child makes internal and external.

Every individual is new and unique and different from others. He is a new experiment with life. We cannot change his nature just as we cannot change the color of his eyes. According to Prof. Thompson–“education is for the individual, its function is to enable the individual to survive and live out its complete life”. Education is imparted to perceive the individual life. Community exists for the individual. Community being the means and individual being the end. Education should not set the means over the ends. Education is given for the sake of individual with a view to save him from destruction. Therefore, individual or not society should be the virtue of all educational efforts and activities.

The naturalists like Rousseau and TP Nunn told that “the central aim of education is the autonomous (self) development of the individual”. It is therefore that education should be according to nature which would make an individual what he ought to be. According to Rousseau, “everything is good as it comes from the hands of God, but everything degenerates in the hand of men”. God makes all things good. Man meddles with them and they became evil.

The psychologists are of opinion that education is an individual process. No two children are identical in intellectual capacity and emotional disposition. It is therefore that a rigid and uniform curriculum for a large number of children is not justified. It should be replaced by a broad based and flexible curriculum. The work of education should be to find out the individual child's innate powers and possibilities and to provide the means by which he may enable to realize the highest of them. The teachers and books are the signboards to the road within.

The spiritualists are of the view that every individual is a separate entity and responsible for his own actions. Since the spiritual development of man is individual the main function of education should lead the individual to self-realization and the realization of higher values in life. Swamy Vivekananda says, “Man is potentially divine. The goal is to manifest this potentiality within by controlling nature external and internal through education”. Lroothee always said, “No one can be like another, but every one can be like the highest, how is that to be? Let every one be perfect in himself”.

According to this opinion, the progress and advancement of mankind is due to great individuals born in different periods of history. They include great scientists, inventors, explorers, religious leaders, social reformers and philosophers and the like. But for such individuals, the world would not have moved beyond what it was a few thousand years ago. It is only through the activities of such individuals that the world has become better and a happier place to live in. Perry Nunn says, “Nothing good enters the human. World expect in end through the free activities of the individual men and women and that educational practices must be shaped to accord with the truth”. According to him, the purpose of educational efforts is to create conditions for the promotion of complete development of individuality.

As against the individual aim, there is the social aim of education. The individual is endowed with a social nature, he is social by instinct. An individual seems everywhere and always to be caught up in an intricate web of social relations. Without them the newborn baby would almost perish (The social process and the educational process are essentially one and the same). The individual cannot live and develop in isolation from society.

The social aim of education in its extreme stage, neglects all the claims of an individual. Man is not born human, he becomes so. The state or society is superior to the individual in all respects. The individual citizen is totally subservent to the state, which is all-powerful. The state has the right to mould and shape the individual so as to suit its own purposes or progress. The individual does not have the freedom to express his own views. The needs of society dictate the needs of education. The state uses the most convenient weapon for preparing individual to play different roles in society. He is to obey what the authorities dictate. His needs, usages and nature are completely ignored. The exponents of this school of thought believe in imparting education through social control and their watchwords in the educational process are discipline and obedience. The individual is to be given education not because he must develop his own individuality, but because he is required to serve the specific purpose, which the state has already determined. The state is supreme to dictate what shall be taught and how shall be taught. Discipline is its watchword, willing acceptance of authority is the method and obedience is the rule.

The social aim finds expression in such concepts as education for social efficiency. A society is considered to be efficient only, when it is physically strong, intellectually enlightened, economically self-sufficient and morally well disciplined. Such a society requires individuals who are physically fit, intellectually well-off, economically self-sufficient and morally high. It is only such individuals who can contribute really towards welfare of that society. In democratic countries the education aims at developing socially efficient individuals. Social efficiency implies social awareness, economic productivity and cultural and moral refinement. Social awareness will produce in the mind of the child, a sense of fairness in dealing with others, open mindedness to the ability to follow and lead as the situation warrants. Economic independence will help him to pull his own weight and he will not be a parasite or a drag on society, culture and moral refinement means that he will have a spirit of social service and self-sacrifice. He also conforms to a certain standard of conduct known as the ‘moral conduct’. John Dewey says ‘In the democratic and technological environment, the aim of education should be to enable the individual to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities’. He further adds, ‘all education proceeds by the participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race’. This process begins unconsciously almost at birth and is continually shaping the individual's powers, saturating his consciousness, forming his habits training his ideas and arousing his feelings and emotions.

Apparently the two aims seem to contradictory and opposed to each other. The individual aim, if stressed greatly, will produce one, who are selfish, boastful and egoists. While extreme emphasis on social aim will create suppressed personalities and turn them into automation.

India has become a secular and democratic country, when India becomes free, there was need for reorientation and restructuring of all our existing social, political and educational needs of the country. Aims of independent India were; preparation for democratic citizenship, increased productivity, national integration and achievement of goals. The total education system had to be reoriented and restructured to facilitate the achievement.

Democratic citizenship is one of the important aims of education. Education should prepare people for democratic citizenship. It means to train persons with capacity for clear thinking, receptivity to new ideas, clarity in speech as well as in writing and true patriotism.

All round development of personality is an important aim of education. Education should develop the literary, artistic, aesthetic and cultural interests of students. For this purpose, subjects like art, music, dance, craft etc., should be included in the curriculum.

If democracy is to function successfully, there should be people to assume leadership in the social, political, industrial and cultural fields. Education should train the youth to assume such responsibilities.

For improving the poor economic situation of the country, the Commission emphasized the need for increasing productivity through vocational and technical efficiency. One of the aims of education is to develop vocational efficiency of the youth. Education help to create a new attitude toward work and dignity of labour.

Through education, the child should learn the art of harmonious living. Education should enable a person to acquire the necessary interpersonal skills and adjustment abilities for successful and happy living together in society.

Increased productivity is an essential need of our country. Education should help to satisfy this need through the production of man power i.e. people who are equipped with advanced scientific knowledge, complex technical ability and efficient work experience.

Education should include the feeling of oneness and belongingness. This is a very important aim of education of our country which has the tendency to divide on the basis of language, culture, caste, religion and so on. This aim should be accomplished through some kind of public 18educational system and some form of obligatory national service.

The world is moving very fast with all kinds of scientific and technological advancements. India also should keep pace with the advancements of the modern world. Our education should aim at producing people who are able to think and judge independently and effectively. Intellectually efficient and technically competent persons must be prepared.

Another important aim of education is to integrate social, moral and spiritual values in the minds of children and young people. The curriculum should include instruction in these subjects. There should be set times for moral and spiritual instruction in all educational programmes. All religions should be given equal importance.

Nursing education is the professional education for the preparation of nurses, to enable them to render professional nursing care to people of all ages, in all phases of health and illness, in a variety of settings.

It is a philosophical position adopted by naturalists, who approach philosophy from purely scientific point of view. They believe that nature alone represents the entire reality. There is nothing beyond/behind and other than nature.

Bacon, Comenius, Herbert Spencer, Huxely, Bernard Shaw, Rousseau JJ, George Hayward Jayce, James Ward, Ralph Barton Perry, Darwin MC Dougall, Lamarck, Thomas Hobbs, Tagore.

Naturalism is a doctrine that separates nature from god, subordinates spirit to matter and setup unchangeable laws as supreme. According to naturalists, human life is a part of nature, it is a self-sufficient entity having its own natural matter natural force and natural laws. It emphasises, on ‘matter and the physical world’. It does not believe in spirituality and supernaturalism.

Naturalism, as a philosophical doctrine has three distinct forms:

Nature is the reality, human life is wholly controlled and influenced by the eternal laws of nature, and it governs the human life, since it is moulded by natural laws. Reality does not exist within the individual. It is rather outside him, in the natural universe. Tagore calls, ‘nature’ as the ‘manuscript of god’ since human life is moulded and controlled by external nature, it should be in accordance with the natural laws.

There is no spirit or soul, only matter is everything. Man is also matter, which is made up of atoms, empty space and motion. It regards man is merely a machine, governed by mechanical laws, he has no creative capacity, purpose or direction. This philosophy aims at training man as a good machine and keeping it in good working condition.

Based on Darwin, Herbert Spencer's view, by the process of growth and development man was energist identifying reality as a force of energy. Man's natural endowments (emotional and temperament) are the real springs of his behaviour. If our behaviour is according to our instincts, we feel happy, if not we feel unhappy and disappointed. Education should try to sublimate these natural impulses for socially desirable ends.

Natural surroundings and freedom are the important factors for the growth and development of the child.

Human nature develops according to the laws obeyed by heavenly bodies, as they move in their orbits. The duty of education is to learn, what these laws are and how to use those laws. Educational materials should be the facts and phenomenon of nature. Education makes the individual, a natural man.

Teacher can neither interfere with the activities of children nor can impose his own ideas and ideals, will power upon them or a moulder of character formation. His place is ‘behind the scene’. He is a ‘spectator’ or an ‘observer’ of the child's development. He cannot impose any activity, restrictions or limitations for the learner. He will allow the child, provided opportunity for free development of their own motives, growth and development in an atmosphere of non-intervention and freedom. He does not expect undue respect from his pupils nor does he pose as superior. He tries to understand the pupils and approves their behaviour. Teacher cannot dictate to pupils, what they have to do.

Education is based on psychology of the child and in accordance with his nature. Naturalists keep the child in the forefront in the entire process of education. The teacher school, curriculum, methods of training are not so important as the child, who is to be educated. Naturalists want the school, to provide an environment, which is conducive to the free development of the growing child.

The word, ‘idealism’ has been derived from ‘ideal’ or ‘ideas’. Ideals or higher values are much more significant in human life than anything else. This philosophy seeks to explain man and universe in terms of spirit or mind. This philosophical thought, is originated by the great Greek philosophers, Socrates and Plato. They conceived ideas as the basis of their philosophy. Plato in his dialogues indicated the importance of mind and reason in the experience of man. Idealism idolizes ‘mind and self’; it explains man and the universe in terms of ‘spirit’ or ‘mind’. Man's spiritual nature is considered to be the very essence of his being.

Plato, Socrates, Kant, Hegel, Berkley, Guru Nanak, Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi, Comenius, Kapila, Pestalozzi, Schopenhauer, Freebel, Dayanannda, Rusk.

Educational idealists believe that man is born with spiritual self. He can realise his spirituality and understand its true nature only through the agency of education. Education is expected to enlarge the boundaries of the spiritual realm. Ideals of race and its cultural pattern are preserved, transmitted and modified subsequently in the light of new situations.

The world is based on natural laws that are eternal and unchanging, logical consequence, 24physical laws are based on reason must be taught, as nature is simply the outer expression of an inner logical order.

In nature, man alone can understand logic order in existence through the power of his mind by reasoning and self-discipline. It is provided by the family and school, acquires an effort of mind and will.

Idealism lays proper stress on the glory and grandeur of human life, which is the best creation of god. It has provided human life with very high aims.

Education should lead to perfection in the individual. Human personality is of supreme value and constitutes the noblest work of god. The aim of education should be the exaltation of the self, which implies self-realisation. It is the one i.e., specially associated with idealism, since man is a spiritual being, the divine in man should be unified and brought to his consciousness by means of education.

Man himself is the creator of cultural environment. It is a product of man's creative activity. Idealists therefore, emphasise that each child should enter into the cultural heritage of mankind which is free from the limitations of the material environment. Man has to preserve the culture, what he has inherited, and also make to contribute the enrichment of that culture, so that the boundaries of spiritual realm will be enlarged. Education must help the individual in this contribution. Education should aim at providing the mean of acquainting the student with great achievements in art, literature, mathematics and sciences. Man should be able to invent, create, produce new and beautiful ideas and objects of community and society. Education should emphasise, encourage invention and creation as a part of culture.

Intellectual development requires training in logical understanding and perception.

The pupil has to learn:

Since all human beings are equally, the children of god. In idealistic society education should be universal without any distinction of caste, creed, color or social status.

Man should not accept his physical environment as unchangeable. He should modify the environment according to his needs and mould it according to his own purposes through his inventive and creative skill. Education must foster those inventive power of man to ensure his mastery over the material given to him.

In idealism, the curriculum will be selected based upon ideas and ideals. It aims to develop a true sense of appreciation of truth, goodness and beauty by which spiritual perfection will result. Spiritual act consists of moral, intellectual and aesthetic events.

What is true and real in daily life is admissible; whose reality is not felt and unreal is inadmissible.

J Friedrich Herbart: He gave educational ideas on principles of realism and development of many-sided interests among the children. He explained, scientific effort has to be made by the teachers, which interest is for better welfare of the child and society. After identifying this analysis, interests among the children should be developed in the context of different circumstances of life.

Herbert Spencer: According to Herbert, education has to teach man to lead a complete life and live full happy life. The learner has to engage in the following acts in a desired manner.

Franklin Bobit (American educationalist): Education should be provided according to the reality of life. Human responsibilities and obligations which are necessary to lead a happy life are:

Scientific attitude based on realistic principle, where the learner can extends his knowledge, which he learnt through books can be developed. Spiritual need has not considered as a real need of education.

Science, mathematics, hygiene, vocational activities etc., have been given prominence in the curriculum.

It is derived from Greek word, ‘pragmatism’ which means ‘practice or action; active and efficient’. A pragmatist lives in the world of facts rather than ideas or ideals. In American philosophy, ‘prag-matism’ means ‘utility’. For them whatever useful is good end, whatever good is useful.

Pragmatism is a matter of fact, treatment of things based solely on their practical utility. It is the element of utility that has the greatest appeal for a pragmatist. For him, utility is truth and truth is utility. Pragmatism believes in practical and utilitarian philosophy.

Reality or truth works out in a practical situation whatever fulfils one's purpose and develops one's life is true.

It is a practical and utilitarian school of pragmatism; It believes in imparting education with reference to human needs. It enables the child to solve his daily problems and also to lead a better and happy life by creating new values.

The pragmatist does not start with any fixed aims or scheme of values. The main task of the education is to put the education into a position of developing values for himself. The man has to create the values in the light of his own 29experience and felt needs. The child must learn, which values will fulfill and satisfy his needs and wants in the environment, he has to create such environment for the child.

For the creation of new values, activity and experience are essential. Education should therefore provide physical, intellectual, social, moral and aesthetic acts as the media for the creation of values, and for the development and selection of what the child wants to learn to satisfy his own needs for the present as well as for the future.

All the aspects are developed for meeting the individual and social needs of man, this will help him to cope with the varied problems and situations in life successfully. Direct the impulses, interests and abilities towards the satisfaction of the felt needs of the child in the environment.

Pragmatists will provide a social setting for the development of cooperative and correlated learning in the school. Pragmatism emphasises adaptation to environment construction and reconstruction of experience and development of capacities to control the environment.

The learner through pragmatism will develop physically, mentally, socially, morally and aesthetically.

Pragmatists will not fix the curriculum in advance or in the beginning itself. Only an outline of the acts may be kept in view in the beginning and curriculum can be evolved according to the requirement of the situations. Thus, it will be a flexible and changing curriculum. While deciding it, the nature of the child and the multiple acts of life must be taken into consideration.

It includes the subjects, which will impart knowledge and various types of skills, which the child needs in his present as well as future life. The curriculum is to be governed by the child's natural interests and felt needs during the successive stages of development. The experiences are provided which give knowledge and skills to the child. At the elementary stage reading, writing, arithmetic, nature study, drawing and handwork are provided.

While deciding the subjects of curriculum, the principle of integration is kept in view. Instead of dividing knowledge into various subject fields, integrated knowledge around various problems of life is preferred. Pragmatism emphasises only the utilitarian aspect, so it will neglect useful subjects like art and poetry.

The world and its values are continuously changing, the educational system also changes from time to time. Each one philosophy has its own contributions and limitations; no one philosophy is complete in itself and can be applied successfully in all situations. Education has to be flexible and dynamic. It has to adopt, to the changing conditions and environment through out the ages.

It is the youngest philosophy, described as modern 20th century philosophy, however a wide general recognition in educational field is not yet received.

A modern philosophy which is primarily built upon the work of the contemporary scholars of the 20th century.

This philosophy views man as, participating in a world of things and events, human existence is the nature of man to exist, to stand out into reality, to participate in being, to be present to all.

Soren Kierkegaard (Danish philosopher); Jan Paul Satre (French writer); Karl Jaspers (German philosopher); Paul T; Reinhold Niebuhr.

George Kneller has written ‘existentialism and education’.

It is an American philosophy, which is a revolt against the ‘formal/conventional/traditional’ system of education. It became popular, in 1929 the economic depression of USA adversely affected the educational system of the country.

Education is centred around for the present life itself. The development of an individual and the society is only possible, when education facilitates the growth of every phase of the child.

John Dewey; William James; G Thomas Lawrence; William Kilpatric.

It should be based on the actual giving environment of the child. It must reflect his daily life.33

Political; Moral; Social; Vocational; Intellectual; Mathematics; General science, Languages; Integration of experiences.

The human elements, human beings are given more importance. The teacher has to meet the needs of pupil as good human being.

School is a cooperative enterprise, it provide conducive environment for democratic growth of the child.

Person's behaviour is the result of environmental conditioning. Man is a passive recipient, who reacts to external stimuli, he has no will or decision of his own or the capacity to take spontaneous action.

According to Skinner, each individual is having an ‘ego’ / ‘mind’ centre of consciousness which enable him to choose any course of action, that he wanted to do. Individual's actions are predetermined by his heredity or immediate surroundings.

Systematic applications of principles of learning aims at changing maladaptive behaviour with adaptive behaviour.

Man is an end, not a means.

The humanist emphasis is on literature.

He has to overcome the conflicts of his own time.

Music, Literature; central concern is respect for intellectual values and traditions.

The teacher is expected to be well-read, well-trained in humanities subjects and superior attainment.

Experimentalists reject the laissez-faire individualism and permissiveness. They accept a naturalistic point of view, but they want the control and utilization of nature–not submission to nature. It accepts the perspective of evolution.

To familiarize with different philosophies, draw the best and essential points inspiration from all of them and make into one harmonious whole 35and build one's own philosophy of education. It is known as, the ‘eclectic tendency’ in education.

The synthesis or harmonious blend of the diverse philosophies of education. It is the process of pulling out and putting together of the useful and essential aspects of various philosophies of education.

Teachers, need to be prepared carefully for their role through courses of instruction and practical application.

We can easily find out, where a particular philosophy has succeeded and where it has failed and in this way, we can gain the good points of all of them. Infact, all these philosophy of education are complementary and not contradictory. if we take best from all the philosophies to have harmoniousness in nature idealism is fundamental while naturalism and pragmatism are 37contributory factors in the theory and practice of education. To establish new ideals and standards, there is a necessity to formulate a holistic philosophy, where all the best means of development of child will take place and narrow feelings, mutual ill wills can be overcome.

When political independence was achieved in India, the people realised that the educational system started by the British was against the nationalism, culture and traditions of the country. The criticism of the educational system was started even before independence, because it was according to the British policy and not in the interest of India. Its aim was simply to produce clerks who might help in running the British Government. At the same time its aim was to impose English culture, civilization on the Indians. In this educational system, Indian culture was deliberately neglected. Voice against this system has continuously been raised and it has been criticized persistently. In spite of the criticism, there education continues to run on the old lines. Several committees and commissions have been appointed to reform it, but no meaningful change has been brought so far. Education in our country is still impracticable and against Indian culture and traditions. Because of the impracticability of Indian education demands for its reform have been raised.

It may be understood in two forms. First, total change. Second, desirable change. Hereby educational reconstruction, we mean both the types of reforms. The present educational system undoubtedly does not represent Indian culture and traditions. So it should be changed totally or reformed gradually.

The primary aim of education is an all-round development of personality. It mainly includes physical, mental, moral and spiritual development. Along with it, reasoning, thinking, and intelligence should also be developed.

The curriculum will be based on the age, capacity, social status, environment and geographical conditions.

Upto a stage, the education should be entirely free and this expenditure should be done by the state. It will be better, if education is free upto secondary stage. It is necessary to adopt democratic principles in curriculum and in the administration of educational institutions. General, technical, and vocational education should be provided and desirable changes should be made in primary secondary and higher education.

In the teaching methods, the aim should not be only to pass examination but to develop necessary qualities and abilities also; so education should be activity centred. Teaching should be so organised that the student may become self-reliant.

Education should be so organized and conducted that the problem of indiscipline may not arise at all, in the educational institution. For this, qualities like liberalism, tolerance and discretion may be developed in students.

Education cannot be beneficial in the absence of competent teachers. So proper arrangements for the training of teachers should be made. For this work, necessary changes are needed in the outlook of training institutions.

The prevailing examination system is defective, because it does not evaluate the ability of students properly. So such changes are to be made that the ability of students may be evaluate properly. The examination should be based on the work of the entire session. The defects of essay tests may be removed.39

The cooperation of teachers and guardians is needed in the reconstruction of education because the child passes his time in the company of both. So the education of guardians is also needed in this regard to fulfill their duties.

The work of educational reconstruction becomes easy if the schools are establishes in healthy environment.