Introduction1

Sociology is the youngest of all social sciences. The history of sociology is as old as society. Systematic studies of society started long back in Greece, i.e. in 427–347 B.C. Plato and his disciple Aristotle (384–322 B.C) laid foundation for systematic study.

‘The science of social phenomenon subjected to natural laws, the discovery of which is the objective of investigations’—Auguste Comte

‘The scientific study of society’—Gidding and Gidding

‘Study of relationship between man and his environment’—H.P. Fair Child

‘The study of interactions arising from the association of living beings’—Gillin and Gillin2

‘The study of human interactions and interrelations, their conditions and consequences’—M Ginsberg

‘The science which attempts the interpretive understandings of social being’—Max Weber

‘The scientific study of social relationships, their variety, their forms whatever affects them and whatever they affect’.

‘Sociology is the scientific study of patterns of human behaviour as they emerge and crystallise out of the interactions of human beings in the groups, which comprise the society’—George Shankar

‘It is the study of social aggregates and groups in their institutional organisation and the causes and the consequences of changes in institutions and social organisation’—International Encyclopedia of social sciences.

Sociology as a science: It emerged as a special discipline among the social sciences, considered as sciences of society. The concept was first developed by Emile Durkheim. As it uses scientific methods, investigation, and different bodies of knowledge.

Some critics who deny sociology to be regarded as science, sociology is a social science it cannot be regarded as science.

There is no one opinion about the scope of sociology. Calberten describes, since sociology is a elastic science it is difficult to determine just where its boundaries begin and ends. It is impossible to divide as it studies human interactions, interrelations, their conditions and consequences.

It classifies, analyses and delimits the forms of social relationships.5

It does not understand to study all the actions of society. It studies genetic forms of social relationship behaviour and activities.

It is a specialised branch of knowledge concerned with ultimate forms of psychic relationship, which link men to men in the society.

It studies interpretation and understanding of behaviour and it is concerned with analysis and classification and types of social relationship.

The sociology studies all forms of social relationship.

He has differentiated the society and the community on the basis of forms of social relationship.

Sociology was divided into 3 branches:

The interconnections of social relations and the results; social life as a whole will be studied.

Sociology is divided into systematic and general sociology. It describes how the individual will react social changes in a given society.

It studies the types and forms of social relationship. It determines the relation between different factors of social life, social change, persistence and to discover sociological principles governing social life.

‘Critical examination into a situation to discover new facts about a particular or specified social phenomenon to discover intellectual and practical answers to problems through the application of scientific methods in the universe’ is called social investigation. It is a careful, critical enquiry or examination in 8seeking facts or principles diligent investigation in order to ascertain something. It is a critical in the light of newly discovered facts. It is the study of activities undertaken to search a solution for the social problems. The society has to march on its present form with the help of constant research and investigation. Long march from stone age to computer age has been the result of research. Today society is facing several social problems of formidable in nature. They demand solutions and any attempt to solve the problems must be through scientific enquiry. It aims at increasing our knowledge about society and strategies involved solvation of social problems.

‘Systematic investigation to gain knowledge about social phenomena and social problems’—Moses CA

‘It is the investigation of the underlying process operating in the lives of persons who are in association‘—Bogardus E

‘It is a study of human group relationships‘—Whitney FL

‘It is the systematic study of discovering the new facts or verifying old facts, their sequences, interrelationship, casual explanations and the natural laws, which govern them‘—PV Young

‘Systematised effort to gain new knowledge or new mode or orientation of new knowledge’—Redman and Money

‘The manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge; whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art’—M Stephen

It is a common method used to diagnose and solve the social problem. The survey design is the non-experimental type of research in which, the researcher investigates a community or a group of people. The researcher gathers the data from a relatively large number of cases at a particular time. It involves clearly defined problem or objectives. It requires expert, imaginative planning, careful analysis, interpretation of data gathered, logical and skillful reporting of the findings.

‘It is a process by which qualitative facts are collected about the social aspects of a community composition and activities’—Mark Abram

‘Collection of data concerning the living and working conditions, broadly speaking the people in a given community’—Bogardus ES

‘It is the scientific study of conditions and needs of a community for the purpose of presenting a constructive programme and social advance’—EW Burgers

‘It is a process by which quantitative facts are collected about the social aspects of a community, composition and activities’—SM Harison

‘Fact finding study dealing chiefly with working class and with the nature and problems of community’—AF Wells

Social survey are connected with:

Simplest survey with in the social discipline. To describe objectively the nature of the situation under study and conclusions also drawn.

The researcher looks back to see what has been accomplished with a critical eye and evaluates the results. The researcher is interested in finding out the results of some procedure or methods already in operation. This method is used on small sample atleast initially. To find, if this method in operation meets the criteria stated in the purpose of the original project. It should not be done by the investigators, who have a particular benefit or gain to be made from the results.

When two different groups or techniques are compared this technique is used. It should be based on an important professional problem, so the resulting data will be significant to the profession. Significant elements will be considered, each element is representative within itself.

The analysis of the activities or processes that an individual is called upon to perform. This method may yield information that would prove useful in establishing:

It is based upon a longitudinal consideration of recorded data indicating what has been happening in the past, what the present situation reveals and on the basis of these data, what is likely to happen in the future.

Data is collected over short time (days to months) no control over the sample.

Data is collected more than five years.

Oriented towards the discovery of relationships between variables where phenomena of interest, but pursues the question: What factor or factors influence, affect, cause or relate to this phenomena? When a new area or topic is being studied it is useful to estimate the feasibility and cost of undertaking.

It involves the collection of data at one point in time or it observes at only one point in time. The phenomena under 16investigation are captured as they manifest themselves during the one static time period of data collection. They are easy to manage and are economically advantageous, majority of health-care professional studies are cross-sectional.

When a body or an individual organisation conducts the same survey at regular intervals, e.g. Economic survey of RBI; census survey. The survey is conducted with a view to find out some information required for a particular purpose.

Which will be conducted by the government to find out certain facts for official or philanthropic purpose.

Individuals without the help of official agencies will be conducting survey to collect the data for research purpose.

The researcher himself will collect the data by means of observation or interview for research purpose.

The collected information will be analysed, the researcher does not start the survey but spends on the work, which has already been done by somebody else.

Through mailed questionnaire the researcher will obtain the information.17

When a survey is carried out in a particular area or particular subject for the first time.

The researcher carries out the work several times on the same sample.

When the nature and result of survey are open to the public or organisation is called ‘open survey’.

The results or information gathered through survey are kept confidential.

The survey covers vast field, variety information and wide range is covered.

The field covered is comparatively limited.

The case study is a way of organising social data for the purpose of viewing social reality. It examines a social unit as a whole. The unit may be a person, a family, a social institution or a community. It is often used for descriptive research. It is a longitudinal approach showing development over a period of time.

The case study method is a widely used systematic field research technique in these days. The credit for introducing this method in the field of social investigation goes to Frederic Le Play, who used it as a handmaiden statistics in his studies of family budgets. Herbert Spencer was first used case material in his comparative study of different cultures. Dr William Healy resorted to this method considered it as a better method over 19and alone the mere use of statistical data. Similarly, anthropologists, historians, novelists and dramatists have used this method concerning problems pertaining to their areas of interests. Even management experts use case study methods for getting clues to several management problems.

Individuals suffering with social problems like drug addicts, alcoholics, juvenile delinquents, interested events.

‘It is a form of qualitative analysis involving very careful and complete observation of a person, a situation or an institution’—Biesanz and Biesanz

‘All inclusive and intensive study of an individual, in which the investigator brings to bear all his skill and methods or as a systematic gathering of enough information about a person to pursue one to understand how he or she functions as a unit of society’—Young

‘It is a way of organising social data so as to preserve the unitary character of the social object being studied’—Goode and Hat

‘It is a technique by which individual factor whether it is an institution or just an episode in the life of an individual or a group is analysed in the relationship to any other in the group’—H Odum

‘A comprehensive study of a social unit’—PV Young

It is a form of qualitative analysis where in careful and complete observation of an individual or a social situation or a social unit. It is an in depth study. It analyses limited number 20of events or conditions and their interrelations. It is an intensive investigation of a particular unit under consideration.

The case study method is based on several factors:

To gather the information about a specific social phenomenon from a huge sample at a given time in different areas of a region, opinion poll method of survey is used. Public awareness of a specified event will be collected through this poll. The researcher will take assistance from field investigators, structured questionnaire is formulated to gather the data. The survey conducting areas usually be a common meeting/gathering place of the public.

A good deal of information can be gathered by direct questioning of sample, who have specified characteristics through the use of formal instrument (i.e, questionnaire). If the informants are spread over a vast or in accessible areas, the information is sought with the help of questionnaire.

‘Any written document, which is used to instruct one or more readers or listeners to answer one or more questions.’23

Questions in the questionnaire.

The person who answers the items in a questionnaire.

A person who conducts the study, who is having training in interviewing techniques and administering the questionnaire in the study projects.

The heart of the questionnaire method is ‘question’ itself. It acts as an effective stimuli. It is a device securing answers to questions using a form, which the respondent fills.

Questions should be capable of analysing the entire problem.

Items should be clear, complete; questions should be worded simply, as possible to provide an opportunity for easy, accurate and unambiguous responses. Questions should be in limited number to avoid disinterest, tiredness and boring. It should be free from suggestions or leading.24

The interviewer read the introductory comments in face-to-face interview or in telephonic interview; the cover letter contains introductory letter. It used to introduce the study the potential respondent and should not exceed one page, thus each sentence should serve a distinct purpose.

The content of letter will be divided into four paragraphs:

The items which pose definite, concrete and pre-ordained questions, i.e. prepared in advance and not constructed on the spot during the question period.

To promote interests in answering the questions; this type will be used to study the social attitudes, prejudices and for studies related to children.

The respondent's answer is limited to the choices offered, short in form, limited responses. They provide chance for 30marking alternatives. It is easy to fill out, requires little time, objective, fairly easy to tabulate and analyse. Close-ended questions offer a number of alternative replies from which the respondents must choose closely approximate answer.

It requires the respondent to make a choice between two alternatives. Too restrictive, the respondents may be forced to say within two alternatives. Eg: Do you like to have: (a) Coffee (b) Tea

A range of alternatives provides more information; one can measure intensity of feeling and direction. Most commonly offer 3 or 5 alternatives. Eg: Psychosocial aspect. Liking sweets: (a) with every meal (b) once a while (c) always

Which is put forth to the respondents to select a response that most adequately states their view, used in qualitative surveys.31

Answer choices are provided; each is a graduation of a single dimension of some thought or behaviour. Eg: How did you get along with the doctor in the emergency room? a) strongly agree b) mildly agree c) neither agree nor disagree d) mildly disagree e) strongly disagree

Answer choices are provided but no single dimension underlines them. The respondent must choose discrete, unordered categories by independently evaluate each choice and select the one that best reflects the situation. Eg: The food item I like best a) samosa b) sandwich c) dosa d) idly

It provides a compromise response although answer choices are provided; respondents have to option of creating their own response. Unordered or ordered choices are seen within this structure. Eg: Which of the following areas of expenditures do you want to have the highest priority for improvement in this hospital? a) emergency dept. b) X-ray dept. c) laboratories d) others (please specify)

Questions to rank order their responses along a continuum from most favourable to least favourable can be useful; carefully handled because respondents often misunderstand them. Eg: Attitude of job preferences of physiotherapy students after course completion. a) working in teaching institution b) working in hospital setup. The respondents should rank the answers in the order of preference.

It encompasses several questions on a topic and requires the same response format.32

It assigns numerical score in order to place the individual along a continuum with respect to the attribute being measured. Respondents are asked to give a judgment of something along an ordered dimension. The specified two opposite ends of a continuum is referred as bipolar in nature. Eg: How friendly are you with your classmates?

A check can be made as to the value of the responses by asking a direct or indirect question and then comparing the answers. Eg: Physiotherapy education in India. a) high image b) low image c) no image d) cheap image

It is one of the basic and oldest research methods to gather data. It is a normal part of daily life and becomes a research method if it is systematically planned and recorded and checked for their validity and reliability. The basis for observation is curiosity.

Planned, methodical watching that involves constraints to improve accuracy.

‘It is a technique used for collecting all the data or acquiring information through occurrences that can be observed through senses with or without mechanical devices.’33

‘Systematic viewing coupled with consideration of social phenomena’—PV Young

‘Accurate watching of social phenomena as they occur in nature with regard to cause and effect relationship or natural relationship’—Oxford Dictionary

When the behaviours specified have to provide certain measurement then some form of quantification is required. The qualification usually takes the form of counting. The count may be of number of times that a subject shows a particular form of behaviour during a period of observation. Here observer should be sure of when one act ends, and the next begin. Break the period of observation into short segments and observer can then watch occurrence or non-occurrence of particular behaviour under specified category.

To have adequate account of what was observed during observation, recording is needed. Eg: Motion pictures, films, video tapes.

To ascertain the adequacy of content being put to measure the variable under study.36

Participant observation: It is a technique where researcher participates in the functioning of the social group that is under investigation. The researcher will not interpret their views and meaning into the social situations under observation. It provides deep understanding of human behaviour. Observer usually has three types of records:

It involves indicates of presence or absence of pre-specified behaviour or attributes.

The interview is an oral questionnaire, the interviewee gives the needed information verbally in a face-to-face relationship. It is an important method of data collection where one can know the views and ideas of other persons. The interviewer gains rapport or establishes a friendly, secure relationship with the subject and obtains some confidential information that the subject might be reluctant to put in writing. The interviewer can explain the purpose of the investigation and can explain more clearly just what information he or she wants.40

‘The interview is not only the conversation between an investigator and informant but also interviewer will try to understand the gestures, glances, facial expressions and reveals subtle feelings’—PV Young

‘It is a fundamental process of social interaction’—Goode and Hatt

‘It is face-to-face interpersonal situation in which one person, the interviewer asks a person being interviewed and the respondent will answer or gives the responses; the items are designed to obtain answers pertinent to research problem’—Fred N Kerlinger

On the basis of objectives and qualities:

In recent times, the field of sociology has extended towards medical sciences and the sub-field of ‘Health sociology/medical sociology’ has been evolved. It describes medicine and allied disciplines as social science. There is a dire need to integrate the knowledge of behaviour sciences is essential along with medical sciences and it has to be included in the curriculum of health care professional in order to prepare professionals adequately to practice the science of medicine and the art of professional in varying socio-cultural context coexisting health care systems. The institutions, which integrate the behavioural sciences in their programme of health care education, those are on the path of progress by keeping scientific pace with proper understanding of the structural realities in contemporary society. The study of social relationship between health phenomena and social factors in medical/health context. A sociological approach in medical field gives a better understanding and develops an integral knowledge relate the life processes to the existing social phenomena and health in a comprehensive manner. It provides a unique way of viewing the disease and the client as well. It enables the practitioners with information about medical 45institutions. The study of distribution of health and disease, cultural perspectives, attitudes, values emerging from social organisation. It also deals with study of various socio-cultural, economic, political, geographical, anthropological groups that shapes the health services as a system of country at macro-level and at micro-level. The health care professional will act as behavioural scientist or health social scientist in the medical field. A holistic approach is needed to understand health and illness in a comprehensive manner. Cultural influences the roles, statuses, institutional net works are believed to help in the health enhancing process and helps to identify cross cultural similarities and variations in the patterning of such behaviour.

The knowledge of human behaviour with an interdisciplinary approach to understand the human needs in the context of wider social problems.

It is a total system approach to understand human behaviour. It views man as a product of socio-psychological and cultural factors. It analyses man's behaviour in relation to psychological framework, interpersonal orientation and group influence. It helps to find solutions to problems, which are arising due to man's complex nature.

Both are closely related as many areas of the study are overlapping. The social psychology is a science that deals with the behaviour of the individual in society, focuses upon the individual behaviour understands the factors that shapes the behavioural activities and thoughts of the individual within the social settings.

Social anthropology deals with physical, cultural, social, medical factors, which determine health status and behaviour of the individual in society.

Man is a socio-cultural being, gregarious in nature, always needs the company of fellow-beings. The professional like nurses and physiotherapists who spend most of their time with the clients should have through knowledge about society, environmental influences, situational factors, influencing areas, situational support of the client during the needed hour, individual felt needs and demands needs in order to identify the requirements based on the needs of the people, diagnose their health and sickness. The professionals has to understand the clients family back ground, cultural, customary habits, economical benefits so that, necessary interventions with adequate support can be planned and implemented from the family members and as well others members who will help the client.

The application of goal oriented, purposeful activity in the assessment and treatment of individuals with psychological, physical or developmental disabilities.

Bringing the victim to normal condition requires the socialization process since normalization of victim will not occur suddenly.

NTRUHS—NTR University of Health Science, AP

RGUHS—Rajiv Gandhi University of health Sceinces, Karnataka

MGR Univ—Dr MGR University, Tamil Nadu.