Introduction to SociologyCHAPTER ONE

Sociology is the youngest of all social sciences. The history of sociology is as old as society. Systematic studies of society started long back in Greece, i.e. in 427–347 BC. Plato and his disciple Aristotle (384–322) laid foundation for systematic study.

From all the definitions of sociology, we can list out the following views:

It emerged as a special discipline among the social sciences, considered as sciences of society. The concept was first developed by Emile Durkheim as it uses scientific methods, investigation, and different bodies of knowledge.

Some critics who deny sociology to be regarded as science, sociology is a social science it cannot be regarded as science.

There is no one opinion about the scope of sociology. Calberten describes, since sociology is an elastic science it is difficult to determine just where its boundaries begin and ends. It is impossible to divide as it studies human interactions, interrelations, their conditions and consequences.

It classifies, analyses and delimits the forms of social relationships.

It does not understand to study all the actions of society. It studies genetic forms of social relationship behaviour and activities.

It is a specialised branch of knowledge concerned with ultimate forms of psychic relationship, which link men to men in the society.

It studies interpretation and understanding of behaviour and it is concerned with analysis and classification and types of social relationship.

The sociology studies all forms of social relationship.

He has differentiated the society and the community on the basis of forms of social relationship.

Sociology was divided into 3 branches.

Concerned with geographical basis of the life, its relationship to types of social organisation and the problems of population.

It is divided into number of branches like sociology of religion, sociology of morals. Sociology of laws, sociology of economic life, sociology of language etc.

It discovers the social facts.

The interconnections of social relations and the results; social life as a whole will be studied.

Sociology is divided into systematic and general sociology. It describes how the individual will react social changes in a given society.

It studies the types and forms of social relationship. It determines the relation between different factors of social life, social change, persistence and to discover sociological principles governing social life.

In 1902, Emile Durkheim has classified sociology into:

Nurse should act as a community organiser and leader in planning, organising, and implementing health services through community participation.

Man has to be understood as a member of society and his behaviour is dynamic, which has tendency to act and react equally within his dynamic socio-cultural environment, the nurse has to clearly understand the needs of each segment of the society.

The knowledge of human behaviour with an interdisciplinary approach to understand the human needs in the context of wider social problems. It is a total system approach to understand human behaviour views man as a product of socio-psychological and cultural factors. It analyses man's behaviour in relation to psychological framework, interpersonal orientation and group influence. It helps to find solutions to problems, which are arising due to man's complex nature.14

Both are closely related as many areas of the study are overlapping. The social psychology is a science that deals with the behaviour of the individual in society.

Social situations and social environment will have influence on the occurrence of disease, prevention of illness and health maintenance. Unhealthy life styles and high-risk behaviour predisposes sicknesses such as cancer, AIDS and heart disease. For healthier life maintenance modification of life style is required. Societies have to organise their resources to cope with health hazards and deliver medical care to the population. Individual and societies tend to respond to health problems in a manner consistent with their culture, norms and values. Factors like social, cultural, political, and economic, etc., will 17have definite influence over health maintenance. It is the responsibility of health care professionals to arrange IEC campaigns through mass media activities emphasising the public on healthy life style and individual responsibility for health care. The high-risk behaviour includes poor diet, lack of exercise, smoking, alcoholism, drug abuse, stress and exposure to STD. Adverse social conditions like poverty reduces life expectancy and creates health problems.

Deviation in the normal functioning of the body produces discomfort or adversely affects the individual's health status. Every society has certain norms, values, ideals in regard to health and disease, deviation from which is treated as an aberration or a disease. Diseases occurs due to various factors such as invasion by microbes or other pathogenic agents which disturbs the haemostatic balance and results in malfunctioning of organs, low standards of living, poor environmental sanitation, poor housing, bad habits like smoking and alcoholism, inadequate nutrition, low economy, poverty, contamination of food, water with industrial effluents, air pollution, poor urban planning, deprived of family relationships, inadequate physical activities, defective lifestyle, sexual harassment, unemployment, rapid economic growth, over population, job strain, occupational maladjustment, migration and healthy comparisons, illiteracy, discrimination, misunderstandings, stress, large gaps in income, inadequate access to healthy foods, isolation, etc. In the sociological context disease is associated with a particular way of life, vulnerability for diseases are common among the people who are facing 18certain problems like isolation, geographic or social mobility, inability to fulfill role expectations, changing inconsistency in status, inadequate social support, blocked aspirations, lack of consistency or uncertainty in outcome of vital events, value polymorphism and rapid social changes.

Social factors affects diseases at three levels:

‘Critical examination into a situation to discover new facts about a particular or specified social phenomenon to discover intellectual and practical answers to problems through the application of scientific methods in the universe’ is called social investigation. It is a careful, critical enquiry or examination in 19seeking facts or principles diligent investigation in order to ascertain something. It is a critical in the light of newly discovered facts. It is the study of activities undertaken to search a solution for the social problems. The society has to march on its present form with the help of constant research and investigation. Long march from Stone Age to computer age has been the result of research. Today society is facing several social problems of formidable in nature. They demand solutions and any attempt to solve the problems must be through scientific enquiry. It aims at increasing our knowledge about society and strategies involved solvation of social problems.

It is a common method used to diagnose and solve the social problem. The survey design is the non-experimental type of research in which, the researcher investigates a community or a group of people. The researcher gathers the data from a relatively large number of cases at a particular time. It involves clearly defined problem or objectives. It requires expert, imaginative planning, careful analysis, interpretation of data gathered, logical and skillful reporting of the findings.

It may be done by:

Simplest survey with in the social discipline. To describe objectively the nature of the situation under study and conclusions also drawn.

The researcher looks back to see what has been accomplished with a critical eye and evaluates the results. The researcher is interested in finding out the results of some procedure or methods already in operation. This method is used on small sample atleast initially. To find, if this method in operation 24meets the criteria stated in the purpose of the original project. It should not be done by the investigators, who have a particular benefit or gain to be made from the results.

When two different groups or techniques are compared this technique is used. It should be based on important professional problem, so the resulting data will be significant to the profession. Significant elements will be considered, each element is representative within itself.

The analysis of the activities or processes that an individual is called upon to perform. This method may yield information that would prove useful in establishing:

It is based upon a longitudinal consideration of recorded data indicating what has been happening in the past, what the present situation reveals and on the basis of these data, what is likely to happen in the future.

Data is collected over short time (days to months) no control over the sample.

Data is collected more than five years.25

Oriented towards the discovery of relationships between variables where phenomena of interest, but pursues the question: What factor or factors influence, affect, cause or relate to this phenomena? When a new area or topic is being studied it is useful to estimate the feasibility and cost of undertaking.

Sample from a general population are studied over time with respect to some phenomenon. Different samples are selected at repeated intervals, but the samples are always drawn from the same population. To examine patterns and rates of change over time and to make predictions about future directions.26

Specific populations are examined over a period of time. Different samples are selected at different points in time, but the samples are drawn from specific sub-groups that are often age related.

The same subjects are used to supply the data at two or more points in time. Panel is used in the longitudinal survey projects, refers to the sample of subjects involved in the study. In this the investigator reveals pattern of change and reasons for the change. Since the same individuals are contacted at two or more points in time, the researcher can identify the subjects who did and did not change and then isolate the characteristics of the sub-groups in which changes occurred.

To determine the subsequent development of individuals with a specified condition or who have received a specified intervention to ascertain long-term effects of the intervention.

It involves the collection of data at one point in time or it observes at only one point in time. The phenomena under investigation are captured as they manifest themselves during the one static time period of data collection. They are easy to manage and are economically advantageous, majority of nursing studies are cross-sectional.

When a body or an individual organisation conducts the same survey at regular intervals, e.g: Economic survey of RBI; census survey. The survey is conducted with a view to find out some information required for a particular purpose.27

Which will be conducted by the Government to find out certain facts for official or philanthropic purpose.

Individuals without the help of official agencies will be conducting survey to collect the data for research purpose.

The researcher himself will collect the data by means of observation or interview for research purpose.

The collected information will be analysed, the researcher does not start the survey but spends on the work, which has already been done by somebody else.

Through mailed questionnaire the researcher will obtain the information.

When a survey is carried out in a particular area or particular subject for the first time.

The researcher carries out the work several times on the same sample.

When the nature and result of survey are open to the public or organisation is called ‘open survey’.28

The results or information gathered through survey are kept confidential.

The survey covers vast field, variety information and wide range is covered.

The field covered is comparatively limited.

The case study is a way of organising social data for the purpose of viewing social reality. It examines a social unit as a whole. The unit may be a person, a family, a social institution or a community. It is often used for descriptive research. It is a longitudinal approach showing development over a period of time.

The case study method is a widely used systematic field research technique in these days. The credit for introducing this method in the field of social investigation goes to Frederic Le Play, who used it as a handmaiden statistics in his studies of family budgets. Herbert Spencer was first used case material in his comparative study of different cultures. Dr William Healy resorted to this method considered it as a better method over and alone the mere use of statistical data. Similarly, anthropologists, historians, novelists and dramatists have used this method concerning problems pertaining to their areas of interests. Even management experts use case study methods for getting clues to several management problems.

Individuals suffering with social problems like drug addicts, alcoholics, juvenile delinquents, interested events.

It is a form of qualitative analysis where in careful and complete observation of an individual or a social situation or a social unit. It is an in depth study. It analyses limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations. It is an intensive investigation of a particular unit under consideration.

The case study method is based on several factors:

To gather the information about a specific social phenomenon from a huge sample at a given time in different areas of a region, opinion poll method of survey is used. Public awareness of a specified event will be collected through this poll. The researcher will take assistance from field investigators, structured questionnaire is formulated to gather 33the data. The survey conducting areas usually be a common meeting/gathering place of the public.

A good deal of information can be gathered by direct questioning of sample, who have specified characteristics through the use of formal instrument (i.e. questionnaire). If the informants are spread over a vast or in accessible areas, the information is sought with the help of questionnaire.

‘Any written document, which is used to instruct one or more readers or listeners to answer one or more questions’.

Questions in the questionnaire.

The person who answers the items in a questionnaire.

A person who conducts the study, who is having training in interviewing techniques and administering the questionnaire in the study projects.34

The heart of the questionnaire method is ‘question’ itself. It acts as an effective stimuli. It is a device securing answers to questions using a form, which the respondent fills.

Questions should be capable of analysing the entire problem.

Items should be clear, complete; questions should be worded simply, as possible to provide an opportunity for easy, accurate and unambiguous responses. Questions should be in limited number to avoid disinterest, tiredness and boring. It should be free from suggestions or leading.

The interviewer read the introductory comments in face-to-face interview or in telephonic interview; the cover letter contains introductory letter. It used to introduce the study the potential respondent and should not exceed one page, thus each sentence should serve a distinct purpose.

1st Paragraph

2nd Paragraph

3rd Paragraph

4th Paragraph

The items which pose definite, concrete and pre-ordained questions i.e. prepared in advance and not constructed on the spot during the question period.

To promote interests in answering the questions; this type will be used to study the social attitudes, prejudices and for studies related to children.

The respondent's answer is limited to the choices offered, short in form, limited responses. They provide chance for marking alternatives. It is easy to fill out, requires little time, objective, fairly easy to tabulate and analyse. Close-ended questions offer a number of alternative replies from which the respondents must choose closely approximate answer.

It requires the respondent to make a choice between two alternatives. Too restrictive, the respondents may be forced to say within two alternatives, e.g: Do you like to have: (a) Coffee (b) Tea.41

A range of alternatives provides more information; one can measure intensity of feeling and direction. Most commonly offer 3 or 5 alternatives, e.g: Psychosocial aspect. Liking sweets: (a) with every meal (b) once a while (c) always.

Which is put forth to the respondents to select a response that most adequately states their view, used in qualitative surveys.

Answer choices are provided; each is a graduation of a single dimension of some thought or behaviour, e.g: How did you get along with the doctor in the emergency room? (a) strongly agree (b) mildly agree (c) neither agree nor disagree (d) mildly disagree (e) strongly disagree.

Answer choices are provided but no single dimension underlines them. The respondent must choose discrete, unordered categories by independently evaluate each choice and select the one that best reflects the situation, e.g: The food item I like best (a) samosa (b) sandwich (c) dosa (d) idly.

It provides a compromise response although answer choices are provided; respondents have to option of creating their own response. Unordered or ordered choices are seen within this structure, e.g: Which of the following areas of expenditures do you want to have the highest priority for improvement in this hospital? (a) emergency dept (b) X-ray dept (c) laboratories (d) others (please specify).42

Questions to rank order their responses along a continum from most favourable to least favourable can be useful; carefully handled because respondents often misunderstand them, e.g: Attitude of job preferences of nursing students after course completion. (a) working in PHN (b) teacher (c) staff nurse (d) mid-wife. The respondents should rank the answers in the order of preference.

It encompasses several questions on a topic and requires the same response format.

It assigns numerical score in order to place the individual along a continuum with respect to the attribute being measured. Respondents are asked to give a judgment of something along an ordered dimension. The specified two opposite ends of a continuum is referred as bi-polar in nature, e.g: How friendly are you with your classmates?

A check can be made as to the value of the responses by asking a direct or indirect question and then comparing the answers, e.g: Nursing education in India. (a) high image (b) low image (c) no image (d) cheap image.

It is one of the basic and oldest research methods to gather data. It is a normal part of daily life and becomes a research method if it is systematically planned and recorded and 43checked for their validity and reliability. The basis for observation is curiosity.

Planned, methodical watching that involves constraints to improve accuracy.

‘It is a technique used for collecting all the data or acquiring information through occurrences that can be observed through senses with or without mechanical devices’.

When the behaviours specified have to provide certain measurement then some form of quantification is required. The qualification usually takes the form of counting. The count may be of number of times that a subject shows a particular form of behaviour during a period of observation. Here observer should be sure of when one act ends, and the next begin. Break the period of observation into short segments and observer can then watch occurrence or non-occurrence of particular behaviour under specified category.

To have adequate account of what was observed during observation, recording is needed, e.g: Motion pictures, films, video tapes.46

To ascertain the adequacy of content being put to measure the variable under study.

Two or more raters observing the same behaviour/events and their percentage of agreement obtained establishes the reliability of the schedule.

When a rater observes same behaviour/events on two or more occasions. Multiple observations extending over days/weeks/years.

Participant observation: It is a technique where researcher participates in the functioning of the social group that is under investigation. The researcher will not interpret their views and meaning into the social situations under observation. It provides deep understanding of human behaviour. Observer usually has three types of records:

It involves indicates of presence or absence of pre-specified behaviour or attributes.

Checklists: Phenomena are recorded by putting a tally against a particular behaviour, event or characteristics depending upon its presence or absence. Researcher must list all the expected behaviour related to the variable being measured, so that all relevant behaviour in the subjects will correctly be identified.

Sign system: List categories of behaviours that may or may not be manifested by the subjects. The observer watch for instances of the behaviour on the list and puts a check off beside the appropriate behaviour when it occurs. Researcher identifies the occurrence and frequency of particular behaviour.

The observer places behaviour in only one category for each unit of behaviour.

Rating scales: Observation can also be rated in terms of qualitative points along a descriptive continuum. It usually is quantified during the subsequent analysis of the observation data. Here either the observer is required to make ratings of behaviour or events at frequent intervals throughout the observational period or he may make use of rating scale to summarise an entire event or transaction after the observation is completed where a more descriptive method has been used for maintaining observation record.49

Category system: Construction of category system to which observed behaviours or characteristics could be assigned.

The observer will not attempt to alter the social setting, i.e, being studied and does not make the observation covertly. The observer is a part of the social setting. The subjects are aware of researcher's presence but may or may not be aware of the underlying motive.

Drawback: The interaction between the observer and the observed alters the behaviour of the subject. Ethical issues, as observer will not take consent of subjects.

The observer observes the behaviour of people in their natural setting, where the observed are unaware of being observed; passive role will be maintained with minimum intervention and records.

Observer makes the observation from the peripherally of a social setting and does not interact with others.

The researcher is interested in observing the effects of some specific intervention introduced for scientific purpose. The subjects are aware of their participation in the study. This method is very much useful in nursing research studies.

The interview is an oral questionnaire, the interviewee gives the needed information verbally in a face-to-face relationship. 50It is an important method of data collection where one can know the views and ideas of other persons. The interviewer gains rapport or establishes a friendly, secure relationship with the subject and obtains some confidential information that the subject might be reluctant to put in writing. The interviewer can explain the purpose of the investigation and can explain more clearly just what information he or she wants.

On the basis of objectives and qualities

Knowledge of human behaviour with an interdisciplinary approach to understand human needs in the context of societal problems. It is a social system approach to understand human behaviour. The interpersonal orientation, group influence and socio-cultural factors helps to find solutions to problems which are arising due to mass complex nature.

It is a planned progress and purposeful use of natural and social forces. It is a total process of cultural transformation, e.g: Adult education, satellite programmes, free education. Powerful indicator for quality of life, social change, and social development; positive social control, Bogardus describes social telesis is an economic development, regional development and rural development.56