Dry Eye and Ocular Surface Disorders Suresh K Pandey
INDEX
A
Adnexal surgery 254
abrasion 273
cicatricial entropion 277
distichiasis 282
fornix reconstruction 277
senile entropion 274
trichiasis 282
eyelid 254
blood supply 258
innervation 260
lacrimal system 257
tear film 257
exposure 260
cicatricial ectropion 266
eyelid retraction 268
floppy eyelid syndrome 273
involutional 260
paralytic ectropion 264
senile ectropion 260
ocular surface disease 254
surgical anatomy 254
sugical techniques 260, 273, 283
lubrication 283
substitution 287
tear outflow 283
Amniotic membrane 241
clinical properties 245
extraction 243
histology 242
history 241
immunology 242
indications 247
limitations 250
preservation 243
surgical technique 251
B
Beaver Dam eye study 5
Bioengineered ocular surface equivalents
C
Cataract surgery 127
dry eye disease 127
etiology 127
management 128
postoperative management 131
preoperative management 128
surgical method of choice in
patients 128
surgical procedure 129
pathogenesis 127
Chronic dry eye disease 163
associated conditions 164
diagnosis 165, 166
classification 167
patient history 167
physical examination 168
epidemiology 163
management 165, 172
natural history 165
pathogenesis 164
treatment 165, 170
medications 170
surgical treatment 171
Computer vision syndrome 303
clinical features 306
diagnosis 307
etiology 304
computer glare 304
dehydration 305
display quality 304
dry environment 305
improper workstation design 304
reading new, unfamiliar material at
work 305
reflection 304
refresh rates 304
vision problems 304
incidence 304
management 307
brightness of the environment 308
computer eye glasses 308
ergonomics 309
exercise when sitting 308
eye exam 307
frequent blink 308
glare 307
lighting 307
refocus the eyes 307
regular breaks 307
ocular problems 306
pathogenesis 305
Contact lenses wearers 147
contact lenses 149
lens material 150
lubrication 150
punctal occlusion 150
wear schedule 150
diagnosis 148
dry eye disease 147
etiology 147
future 150
D
Dry eye 3, 47, 72, 78
assessment and diagnosis 47
causes 81
classification 73, 79
clinical diagnosis 78
clinical dry eye assessment 89
global dry eye diagnostic
protocol 91
ocular surface staining 90
symptoms 89
tear film osmolarity 91
tear film stability 90
diagnosis 72
environmental influences 87
multifactorial nature 88
ocular surface 88
tear film 88
epidemiological studies 3
evaporative 93
blinking anomalies 94
chronic allergy 93
diagnosis 93
lid surfacing 94
meibomian gland anomalies 93
toxicity 93
management 78
objectives measures 47
blink rate 49
corneal sensitivity 51
ocular protection index 49
ocular surface staining 47
osmolarity 50
other measures 52
tear secretion tests 51
tear-film breakup time 48
ocular surface 80
pathogenesis 74
prevalence 81
tear film 80
treatment 75
review 3
Beaver Dam eye study 5
Canadian experience 7
Melbourne visual impairment
project 6
Salisbury eye evaluation 6
women's health study 5
strengths and weaknesses 7
subjective measures 53
quality of life 53
symptomatic tear-film breakup time
symptoms 53
subtypes 81
evaporative 83
tear deficient 81
tear deficient 92
clinical diagnosis 92
treatments 95
anti-inflammatory agents 97
diagnostic criteria 96
immunomodulatory agents 98
meibomian gland dysfunction 98
mucin secretagogues 99
novel tear stimulants 98
surgery 99
tear evaporation 99
tear preservation 98
tear supplements 95
treatment options 100
Dry eye syndrome 10
economic implications 14
comorbidities 15
complications 15
direct medical costs 15
indirect costs 16
lifestyle factors 16
epidemiology 10
claims-based studies 11
high-risk populations 13
prevalence 11
utilization trends 13
future trends 14
office visits 13
pharmaceutical interventions 14
Dry eye therapy 189
cyclosporine 0.05% (Restasis®) 189
mechanism of action 191
topical systane® 192
mechanism of action 193
E
Ergonomics 309
F
Freeman-style punctal plugs 326
G
Gels 345
H
Hormone therapy 195
dry-eye syndromes 196
meibomian gland dysfunction 199
ongoing research 195
sex steroids 199
Sjögren's syndrome 198
steroids 198
I
Immunology 242
J
Jones’ procedure 275
L
LASIK procedures 115
M
Medications 176
drug therapy options 178
dry eye syndrome 176
investigation 184
hormones 184
P2Y2 receptor agonists 184
retinoic acid 185
tetracyclines 185
treatment 184
newer agents 178
cyclosporine A 178
topical corticosteroids 181
older agents 181
antibiotics 184
mucolytics 183
tear substitutes 181
therapeutic ocular inserts 183
options 177
treatment approaches 176
Menopause 158
dry eye 158
management 158
N
Novel tear stimulants 98
O
Ocular surface 33
aqueous layer 37
lacrimal gland proteins 38
serum proteins 38
blinking 39
dry eyes 41
causes 42
classification 41
lid surface abnormalities 42
ocular surface disorders 42
tear film abnormalities 42
lacrimation 39
lipid layer 35
alternation 37
mucous layer 38
pathophysiology 33
preocular tear film 33
composition 35
distribution 34
functions 33
structure 34
tear dysfunction 40
tear film stability 40
tear film flow 39
Ocular surface disease 205
etiology 205
causes 206
limbal deficiency 207
limbal stem cell hypothesis 207
goals 211
management 226
current recommendations 226
signs 209
treatment guidelines 212
cultured corneal epithelium 225
excimer laser phototherapeutic
keratectomy 224
experimental treatment modalities
medical 212
suppression of inflammation 212
surgical 216
tissue destruction 214
Ocular surface stem cells 231
bioengineered ocular surface
equivalents 236
identification 233
limbal stem cell deficiency 235
ocular surface disease 234
stem cell deficiency 234
transplantation 236
treatment 235
Oculoplastics 132
diagnosis 133
dry eye syndrome 132
evaluation 133
fluorescein 137
history 134
physical examination 135
rose bengal staining 137
slit lamp examination 137
meibomian gland dysfunction 132
oculoplastic surgery 132
treatment 138
artificial tears 140
lid hygiene 139
oculoplastic approach 142
omega-3 fatty acids 141
oral antibiotics 140
punctal occlusion 140
tetracyclines 140
topical antibiotics 142
topical immunosuppressants 141
topical steroids 140
Ointments 346
P
Pharmacoeconomics 19
basic principles 28
burden of dry eye 19
economic impact 20
humanistic impact 22
treatment options 25
cyclosporine A ophthalmic
emulsion 27
pharmacoeconomic analysis 26
punctal occlusion 26
relative costs 25
Post-LASIK dry eye 115
etiology 116
future directions 124
intraoperative management 123
postoperative management 123
preoperative screening 116
treatment 118
corneal sensation 120
effect of LASIK 120
sensory denervation 120
Pregnancy 152
dry eye 152
factors 152
management 153
prevention 157
treatment 154
Preservative-free topicals 336
product use issues 338
compliance 339
ophthalmic medications 340
product administration 340
use 337
Punctal plugs 312
adverse effects 329
benefits 329
complications 325
Freeman-style punctal plugs 326
Herrick lacrimal plug 327
SmartPlug 327
dry eyes 312
features 312
design 314
location 318
materials 317
future considerations 331
insertion 321
methods 321
pre-insertion decisions 321
techniques 322
limitations 329
management 312
occlusion therapy 313
outcomes 329
absorbable punctal plugs 329
nonabsorbable punctal plugs 330
punctal occlusion 319
clinical indications 319
objective measurements 320
removal 328
absorbable punctal plugs 328
indications 328
methods 328
nonabsorbable punctal plugs 328
Q
Quickert procedure 275
R
Restasis® 189
Rose bengal staining 137
Retinoic acid 185
S
Salisbury eye evaluation 6
Sex steroids 199
Sjögren's syndrome 198
T
Tears 55
clinical relevance 66
tear evaporimetry 66
tear interferometry 66
tear evaporation 63
aqueous tear deficiency 63
evaporation rates 63
lipid tear deficiency 63
tear lipid layer interferometry 56
assessment of lipid spread 59
DR-1 grading and tear lipid layer
thickness 59
DR-1 tear interference camera 56
grading of DR-1 tear interference
image 56
quantification of tear lipid layer
thickness 58
tear interference camera 59
topical lipid application 67
lipid layer treatment 67
U
Utilization trends in dry eye 13
V
Vision problems 304
W
Weis procedure 275
Women's health study 5
Z
Z-myotomy 271
Z-plasty 266
×
Chapter Notes

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1Dry Eye and Ocular Surface Disorders2
3Dry Eye and Ocular Surface Disorders
Editor Suresh K Pandey, MD Assistant Professor John A Moran Eye Center, Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences University of Utah, 50 North Medical Drive Salt Lake City, Utah-84132, USA Sydney Eye Hospital Save Sight Institute University of Sydney Sydney, NSW, 2001, Australia
4Published by
Jitendar P Vij
Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd
EMCA House, 23/23B Ansari Road, Daryaganj
New Delhi 110 002, India
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Branches
Dry Eye and Ocular Surface Disorders
© 2006, Suresh K Pandey
All rights reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the editor and the publisher.
First Edition: 2006
9788180616549
Typeset at JPBMP typesetting unit
Printed at Replica Press P. Ltd., Sonipat
5
I would like to dedicate this book to
my teachers and sincere and genuine well-wishers—
Professor David J Apple, Professor Randall J Olson,
Dr Liliana Werner, Dr E John Milverton and
Dr Anthony Maloof, who have inspired and
motivated me to strive for excellence and
achieve greater heights each day. They have
also been exemplary in their willingness
to impart all they have to teach and train, and have
helped me professionally and personally. It is unusual
to come across such eager teachers in this day and
age and I consider myself lucky to have known
them and to have benefited from their
generosity and dedication towards teaching.6
7Contributors 11Foreword
The clinical and research interest in the ocular surface has burgeoned in the past ten years. The importance of disease of the ocular surface as a cause of patient discomfort and visual impairment has been increasingly recognized by clinicians since Richard Thoft, MD and Judy Friend re-focused our attention on conjunctival and corneal pathophysiology and highlighted the term “the ocular surface”.1–3 Since then, there has been an international research society dedicated to its study—the Tear Film and Ocular Surface Society (TFOS; www.tearfilm.org). There has also been a journal dedicated to the basic science, clinical science, and clinical practice related to the ocular surface—The Ocular Surface (Ethis Communications, New York, USA; www.theocularsurface.com). Better understanding of the physiology of the healthy tear film and ocular surface and better appreciation of the pathophysiology of dry eye disease has led to advances in therapy for both dry eye and ocular surface disease.4, 5
This book on Dry Eye and Ocular Surface Disorders of international authorship draws together current knowledge of the epidemiology, clinical expression, pathophysiology, and available therapy for ocular surface disease, particularly dry eye disease. In a consolidation of research and clinical perspective, the reader is presented with a logical and forthright discussion of the underlying pathogenetic mechanisms and is shown how these features can be modified by appropriate therapy. Expertise from basic scientists, epidemiologists, ophthalmologists, and plastic surgeons cover the gamut of options through which to understand and intervene in dry eye and ocular surface disease.
Dry Eye and Ocular Surface Disorders will be useful not only for comprehensive and specialist ophthalmologists but also for general practitioners and health professionals who seek to keep touch with the latest thinking in respect to diagnosis and management of dry eye and ocular surface disorders. The reader will find within a wealth of knowledge from the laboratories and clinics of some of the leaders in the field and will be able to utilize this reference to great advantage in 12the understanding and care of those afflicted by dry eye and ocular surface disease. Dr Suresh K Pandey and all international contributors are to be congratulated for bringing this collaborative work to fruition.
Professor Gary N Foulks, md, facs
Past President of the Cornea Society
Past President of the Contact Lens Association of Ophthalmologists
Cornea SIT Director American Academy of Ophthalmology
Editor for Clinical Science, The Ocular Surface
Executive Editorial Board, Cornea
Arthur and Virginia Keeney Professor of Ophthalmology
Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Science
University of Louisville School of Medicine
301 E. Muhammad Ali Blvd.
Louisville, KY 40202, USA
 
REFERENCES
  1. Thoft RA, Friend J. Biochemical transformation of regenerating ocular surface epithelium. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1977;16:14–20.
  1. Friend J, Thoft RA. Functional competence of regenerating ocular surface epithelium. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1978;17:134–9.
  1. Thoft RA, Friend J. The X, Y, Z hypothesis of corneal epithelial maintenance. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1983;24:1422–3.
  1. Foulks GN. Evolving therapy of dry eye. Ophthalmol Clin NA 2003;16:29–35.
  1. Foulks GN, Bron AJ. Meibomian gland dysfunction: a clinical scheme for description, diagnosis, classification, and grading. The Ocular Surface 2003;1:107–126.
  1. Pandey SK. Dry Eye and Ocular Surface Disorders. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd.,  New Delhi:  2006.
13Preface
Dry eyes and related ocular problems are becoming increasingly important in view of changes in lifestyle and environment, the development of diagnostic instruments, and the recent knowledge of the dry eye and ocular surface disorders. Dry eye disease is one of the most common reasons for patients to visit an eye-care professional. According to recent estimates, approximately 60 million people suffer from dry eye syndrome in the United States alone. Extended hours spent working in front of computers/visual display terminal, external/environmental factors such as wind, heating and air conditioning drafts increase tear evaporation, and the aging of the population have all contributed to the increasing numbers of such “itchy-burny” patients seen in ophthalmic practices worldwide. Yet there is not enough information available and there are not many textbooks on the topic as compared to the scores of books released every year about cataract surgery.
Dry eyes are seen not only by ophthalmologists but also by general practitioners; a well-informed approach to treatment will go a long way in relieving the suffering of troubled patients. Newer approaches to management are now being tried apart from the routine tear supplements; these include steroids and other anti-inflammatory medications and partial immunomodulators like cyclosporine. Simultaneously, there have been several advances in surgical management of ocular surface disorders and limbal stem cell transplantation and amniotic membrane transplantation are now routinely performed in various centers. It is now possible to improve the ocular surface in many complex cases of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and ocular cicatricial pemphigoid, with the help of such surgical modalities.
This multi-authored text on Dry Eye and Ocular Surface Disorders is divided in 8 sections, with a total of 24 comprehensive chapters and an appendix. A galaxy of internationally respected contributors have provided an authoritative text on the epidemiology and economics of dry eye, the pathophysiology, the current diagnostic and treatment practices, surgical aspects of ocular surface disorders, the present status of surgeries like amniotic membrane transplantation. Few other important issues such as dry eyes in contact lens wearers and dry eye seen during pregnancy and menopause are also discussed. The exhaustive list of chapters and authors may mean there could be some overlap of information between different chapters. However, I feel that this will be useful as each author has given his/her own unique perspective to the topic and the reader can draw his own conclusions based on this diverse opinion base, supported by facts. The contributors have strived to bring together not just the current clinical concepts but also to compile the latest available research information on the topic. In this era of focus on cost-effectiveness of medical treatment, ignoring the financial aspects 14would be to our own peril; and therefore, the section on the economics of dry eyes has been included to bring a unique perspective to the problem.
I am greatly indebted to all the contributors, who are all internationally acclaimed experts in their field, and who have generously contributed in a very short span of time. Despite the wealth of information contained in the book and the diversity of the contents varying from the pathophysiological and anatomical aspects to the future possibilities, we have tried to keep the book easy-to-read, in a simple and appealing format. A comprehensive up-to-date reference list has been added at the end of each chapter and hopefully this will be useful for those wishing to explore further.
I am extremely grateful for the support extended by Dr E John Milverton, Chairman, Intraocular Implant Unit of Sydney Eye Hospital, Sydney, Australia. Ms Janet Stretton (Executive Director, Sydney Hospital and Sydney Eye Hospital) and Dr. Pauline Rumma (Clinical Director, Sydney Hospital and Sydney Eye Hospital) also deserve thanks for their support. I readily acknowledge the interest, and cooperation of Shri Jitendra P Vij, Chairman and Managing Director, M/s Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd., and appreciate his invitation to edit this book. I thank all the publishing staff, particularly, Mr Tarun Duneja, General Manager (Publishing), and Ms Sunita Katla (PA to CEO) in assisting our participation in this effort. Finally, I acknowledge the support of my spouse, Vidushi and family, whose encouragement has allowed me to meet deadlines and to complete this work.
This work has truly been a team effort. While we have taken every possible care to keep the information accurate and useful, I will appreciate any suggestions and constructive criticism from the readers, which will be invaluable in the improvement of the book and to provide more relevant and useful information to the readers.
Suresh K Pandey, md
Assistant Professor
John A Moran Eye Center
Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
University of Utah, 50 North Medical Drive
Salt Lake City, Utah-84132, USA
Sydney Eye Hospital
Save Sight Institute
University of Sydney
Sydney, NSW, 2001, Australia