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Biotechnology—Foundation Course
Ananth N Rao
SECTION 1: BIOCHEMISTRY
CHAPTER 1:
Introduction
CHAPTER 2:
Biochemical Composition of Cells
CARBOHYDRATES
CLASSIFICATION
Monosaccharides
Oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides
MONOSACCHARIDES—ISOMERISM
Isomerism (Stereochemistry)
OPTICAL ISOMERISM
Pyranose-Furanose Isomerism
PROPERTIES OF MONOSACCHARIDES
Mutarotation
Glycoside Formation
Modifications
Reducing Action
DISACCHARIDES
Sucrose
Lactose
Maltose
POLYSACCHARIDES
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
PROTEINS
AMINO ACIDS
Classification
PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACIDS
Isomerism
Amphoterism
Formation of Peptide Bonds
Reductive Amination
Transamination
Amide Biosynthesis
Degradation of Amino acids
Color Reactions of Amino Acids
PROTEINS
Structure of Proteins
Primary Structure
Secondary Structure
Tertiary Structure
Quaternary Structure
Classification of Proteins
Simple Proteins
Conjugated Proteins
Derived Proteins
Primary Derived Proteins
Secondary Derived Proteins
LIPIDS
Classification of Lipids
Simple Lipids
Fats
Triacylglycerides
Waxes
Complex Lipids (Compound lipids)
Phospholipids
GYLCEROPHOSPHATIDE/PHOSPHOGLYCERIDES
Phosphatidyl Ethanolamine (Cephalin)
Phosphatidylcholine (Lecithin)
Physical Properties
Chemical Properties
Phosphatidylserine
Plasmalogens
Phosphatidic Acid
Cardiolipins
PHOSPHOINOSITIDES
Phosphatidyl Inositol
PHOSPHOSPHINGOSIDES
Sphingomyelin
Functions of Phospholipids in Mammals
GLYCOLIPIDS (Glycosphingolipids)
Cerebrosides
Gangliosides
Sulfatide (Sulfolipids) (also called as cerebroside sulfates)
Functions of Glycolipids
Globosides
Lipoproteins
Structure of a Lipoprotein Complex
DERIVED LIPIDS
Fatty Acids (FA)
Classification of Fatty Acids
Depending Number Total Number of Carbon Atoms
Depending on the Length of
Depending on the Nature of Hydrocarbon Chain
Steroids
Cholesterol
Eicosanoids
Classification
Prostaglandins
Chemistry of Prostaglandins
Sources
Inhibitors
Mechanism of Action of Prostaglandins
Prostacyclins (PGI2)
Structure
Site of Formation
Synthesis
Mechanism of Action
Functions in Mammals
Thromboxanes (TX)
Functions in Mammals
Glycolipids
Cerebrosides
Gangliosides
CHAPTER 3:
Enzymes
ENZYME SPECIFICITY
ENZYME INHIBITION
Competitive
Non-Competitive
Uncompetitive
ENZYME INHIBITORS
Inhibitors Acting on Enzyme Protein
Inhibitors Acting on Prosthetic Group
Inhibitors Acting or Coenzyme
Inhibitors Acting on Ionic Activators
Inhibitors Interfering with Substrate Binding
ENZYMES IN TREATMENT
ENZYME REGULATION
Significance
Enzyme Induction and Repression
Regulation by Enzyme Degradation
Regulation by Covalent Modification
Cascade Mechanism
Covalent Activation of Zymogens
Multienzyme Systems
Compartmentalization
ISOZYMES
Clinical Significance of LDH
CPK
Effect of Time and Accumulation of Products
Effect of pH
Effect of Temperature
Kinetics of Bisubstrate Reactions
Single Displacement Reactions
Double Displacement (Ping-Pong) Reactions
CHAPTER 4:
Techniques in Biochemical Studies
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Paper Chromatography
Procedure
Applications
THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Applications
Ion-Exchange Chromatography
Ion Exchange Gels
CHOICE OF BUFFER
Preparation of Ion-Exchange Media
Ion Exchange Kinetics
Operative Procedures
Applications
Gel-Filtration Chromatography
Principle
Types of Gels
Cross-linked Dextran
Polyacrylamide (Biogel-P)
Agarose Gels (Sepharose)
Cross-linked Agarose Gel (Sepharose CL)
Polystyrene (stryagel)
Controlled Porous Glass Beads
Technique
Prevention of Microbial Growth
Preparation
Column Preparation
Samples
Applications
HPLC—HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY
Differences Between Traditional Chromatography and HPLC
Principle
Equipment
Solvent Reservoir and the Solvents
Pumping System
Holding Coil
Pneumatic Amplifier (Pressure intensifier)
Moving Fluid Type
Reciprocating Piston
Syringe Pump
Injecting Devices
COLUMN AND COLUMN PACKING
Types
Matrices
DETECTORS
Ultraviolet Detectors
Fluorescence Detectors
Refractive Index Monitors
Transport Detectors
Electron Capture Detector
Electrochemical Detectors
Temperature Control
Evaluation of Performance
Applications
GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY
Basic Instrumentation
Carrier Gas
Columns
Wall Coated Open Tubular System (WCOT)
Support Coated Open Tubular System (SCOT) or Porous Layer Open Tubular (PLOT)
Column Support or Matrix
Stationary Phase
Coating the Support
Sample Preparation and Application
Separation Conditions
Detectors
Applications
CENTRIFUGATION
Introduction
Different Types of Centrifuges and Their Importance
Small Bench Centrifuges
Uses
Large Capacity Refrigerated Centrifuges
Uses
High Speed Refrigerated Centrifuges
Uses
The Ultra-centrifuge
Preparative Ultra-centrifuges
Analytical
Types of Centrifuges
Swinging Bucket
Angle-head Rotor
ROTORS
Materials Used for Rotor Construction
TYPES
Swinging-bucket Rotors
Fixed Angle Rotors
SUBCELLULAR FRACTIONATION
Density Gradient Centrifugation
Rate Zonal Technique
Procedure
Applications
Isopycnic Centrifugation
Alternatively, the Layering of the Sample can be Done as Follows
Performing Density Gradient Separation
Discontinuous Technique
Continuous Technique
Nature of Gradient Material
Sample Application
Recovery of Gradients
Application of Preparative Centrifuges
Analysis of Subcellular Fractions
Interpretation
Bucket Centrifuges and Uses
RADIOISOTOPE TECHNIQUES
Units
Detection and Measurement of Radioactivity
Salient Features of Scintillation Counting
Autoradiography
Applications
Diagnostic Uses
Therapeutic Uses
Systemic Uses
Other Uses
ELECTROPHORESIS
Paper Electrophoresis
Gel Electrophoresis
Isoelectric Focussing
SECTION 2: CELL BIOLOGY
CHAPTER 5:
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF CELLS
Cell Size
Motility
Cell Theory
Type of Cells
Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
The Cell Coat (Glycocalyx)
INTERCELLULAR AND EXTRACELLULAR CONNECTIONS
The ‘Unspecialized’ Adhesive Contacts
Calcium-dependent Adhesion Molecules
Cadherins
Selectins
Integrins
Calcium-independent Adhesion Molecules
Specialized Junctional Structures
The Occluding Junction (Zonula Occludens, Tight Junction)
Specialized Adhesive Contacts
Communication Junctions (Gap Junctions)
Junctional Complexes
Other Types of Junction
CHAPTER 6:
Cell Architecture and Cell Organelles
CYTOPLASM
CYTOPLASMIC MATRIX
Physical Properties of the Matrix
PLASMA MEMBRANE
BIOCHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MEMBRANES
LIPIDS
CARBOHYDRATES
PROTEINS
Structural Proteins
Functional Proteins
Carrier Proteins
STRUCTURE OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
Bilayer Models
Lipid Membrane Model
Danielli Davidson Model
Unit Membrane Model
Objections to the Model
Inside-outside Asymmetry
Regional Asymmetry
Functions
Transport
Communication
Special Functions
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
OCCURRENCE
MORPHOLOGY
Cisternae
Vesicles
Tubules
ULTRASTRUCTURE
TYPES OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Agranular or Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
Granular or Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
ORIGIN
ENZYMES OF THE ER MEMBRANES
FUNCTIONS OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
General Functions
Functions of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Functions of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Glycosylation of Secretory Proteins
RIBOSOMES
OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION
TYPES
STRUCTURE
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Ribosomal RNAs
Ribosomal Proteins
Ribosomal Enzymes and Protein Factors
BIOGENESIS
Biogenesis of 70S Ribosomes
Biogenesis of 80S Ribosomes
Biogenesis of 5S RNA
Processing of the ribosomal RNA in Nucleolus
Synthesis of Ribosomal Protein and Ribosomal Assembly
Regulation of Ribosomal Assembly
GOLGI COMPLEX
MORPHOLOGY
Cisternae or Saccules
Tubules
Vesicles
Golgian Vacuoles
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
ORIGIN
FUNCTIONS
Mechanism of Vesicle Transport
Stimulus-secretion Coupling
Fate of Secretory Vesicles
ENDOCYTIC VESICLES, ENDOSOMES AND LYSOSOMES
Endocytic Vesicles and Early Endosomes
Phagosomes
LYSOSOMES
Lysosomal Storage Diseases
PEROXISOMES
OTHER VESICLES AND VACUOLES
MITOCHONDRIA
DISTRIBUTION
STRUCTURE
STRUCTURAL VARIATIONS
Variation due to Number of Crests
Variation due to the Structure and Arrangement of the Crests
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
FUNCTIONS
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA
BIOGENESIS OF MITOCHONDRIA
CHLOROPLASTS
Ultrastructure
DNA OF CHLOROPLAST
RIBOSOMES OF CHLOROPLAST
PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS OF CHLOROPLAST
Chlorophylls
Carotenoids
Phycobilins
FUNCTIONS OF CHLOROPLASTS
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
AMYLOPLASTS
Structure and Function
Origin
CHROMOPLASTS
Structure and Function
Origin
NUCLEUS
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
Nuclear Lamina
CHAPTER 7:
Cytoskeleton
ACTIN FILAMENTS (MICROFILAMENTS)
MICROTUBULES
Microtubule-associated Proteins
Functions
CONTRACTILE FILAMENTS
Contractile Filaments in Muscle Cells
Contractile Filaments in Non-muscle Cells
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
MYOSINS
MICROVILLI
Cell Motility
CHAPTER 8:
Cilia and Flagella
DISTRIBUTION OF CILIA AND FLAGELLA
STRUCTURE OF THE CILIA AND FLAGELLA
Fine Structure of Axoneme
PHYSIOLOGY OF CILIARY MOVEMENT
FUNCTIONS OF THE CILIA AND FLAGELLA
BACTERIAL FLAGELLA
CHAPTER 9:
Cell Senescence
CAUSES OF AGING
Cellular Theories of Aging
Pacemaker Theories of Aging
CHAPTER 10:
Protein Biosynthesis—Transcription and Translation
TERMINATION
INITIATION IN EUKARYOTES
INHIBITORS OF TRANSCRIPTION
RNA PROCESSING
POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL MODIFICATION
MESSENGER RNA PROCESSING
RIBOSOMAL RNA PROCESSING
TRANSFER RNA PROCESSING
TRANSLATION
CHAIN INITIATION
Selection of Initiation Site
CHAIN ELONGATION
CHAIN TERMINATION
INHIBITORS OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS
PROTEOLYTIC CLEAVAGES
MODIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS
ADDITION OF TERMINAL AMINO ACIDS
GLYCOSYLATION (CO-TRANSLATIONAL PROCESS)
AGGREGATION AND CROSS-LINKING
CHAPTER 11:
Oncogenes
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ONCOGENES
SECTION 3: GENETICS
CHAPTER 12:
Classical Genetics
INTRODUCTION
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
Alleles
Dominant Character
Recessive Character
Homozygous
Heterozygous
Phenotype
Genotype
MENDELIAN LAWS OF INHERITANCE
Monohybrid Cross
The Cross
Reasons
Monohybrid Test Cross
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
The Cross
CODOMINACE
The Cross
Problems
DIHYBRID CROSS
Theory
The Cross
Gene Interactions
CODOMINANCE
Theory
The Cross
COMPLEMENTARY GENES
The Cross
The Cross
SUPPLEMENTARY GENES
The Cross
EPISTASIS
DOMINANT EPISTASIS
The Cross
RECESSIVE EPISTASIS
The Cross
EXTRA-CHROMOSOMAL INHERITANCE
Chloroplasts—Molecular Biology
Mitochondria—Molecular Biology
Plasmids
Major Groups of Plasmids
F-factors
Col-factors
Killer Trait in Paramecium
Inheritance of Plastids in Mirabilis
Mode of Inheritance
Iojap Strain In Maize
MALE STERILITY IN PLANTS
The Cross
Petite Character in Yeasts
CARBON DIOXIDE SENSITIVITY IN DROSOPHILA
CHAPTER 13:
Nucleic Acids
RNA- RIBOSE NUCLEIC ACID
RIBOSOMAL RNA (rRNA)
MESSENGER RNA (mRNA)
Size
Structure
Stability
TRANSFER RNA (tRNA) OR SOLUBLE RNA (sRNA)
Structure
Acceptor Stem
D Arm
Anticodon Arm
Variable Arm
TψC Arm
CHAPTER 14:
Chromosomes
INTRODUCTION
History
Morphology
Size, Shape and Number
Structure of the Chromosome
Chromonema
Acentric Chromosomes
Arm Ratio
Centromeric Chromosomes
Functions of a Centromere
Secondary Constriction
Nucleolar Organiser
Telomeres
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CHROMOSOMES
Proteins
Protamines
Histones
Functions
Synthesis
Non-histone Proteins
DNA- Protein Association in the Chromosomes
Euchromatin and Heterochromatin
Types of Heterochromatin
Constitutive Heterochromatin
CHROMOSOME MODELS
MULTIPLE STRAND MODELS
Simple Multistrand Model (Steffsen 1952, 1961)
Ris Multistranded Model
Single Strand Models
Taylor’s Side Chain Model or Centipede Model
The Freese Taylor Model
Coiled Coil Model
Ris Modified Model
Folded Fibre Model of Dupraw (1966)
Nucleosome Model
UNUSUAL CHROMOSOMES
POLYTENE CHROMOSOMES
Salivary Gland Chromosomes from the Nucleus of a Male Drosophila
Structure
Unit Chromatids
Chromosome Puffs
LAMPBRUSH CHROMOSOMES
Size
Structure
SUPERNUMERARY CHROMOSOMES
CHAPTER 15:
Cell Division
MITOSIS (Mito-thread)
INTERPHASE
PROPHASE (Pro–before, phase–appearance)
Prometaphase
Metaphase
ANAPHASE
Telophase
Cytokinesis
Significance of Mitosis
ANAPHASIC MOVEMENT
Electrostatic Force
Hydrodynamics
Tactoids
Streaming Currents
Current Views
THE SPINDLE
Types of Spindle
Spindle Fibres
Role of Mitosis in Cancer
CHARACTERISTICS OF CANCER CELLS
Hypothesis on Cancer
Somatic Mutation Hypothesis
Viral Gene Hypotheses
Carcinogens
The Defective Immunity Hypothesis
MEIOSIS
TYPES OF MEIOSIS
First Meiotic Division
Second Meiotic Division
Interphase
Prophase I
Proleptotene
Leptotene (slender thread)
Zygotene (mating thread) or Zygonema
Pachytene (thick thread) or Pachynema
Diplotene or Diplonema
Terminalization
Rotation
Diakinesis
Prometaphase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
Interkinesis
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
Cytokinesis
Synaptonemal Complex
Structure
Function of SC
Significance of Meiosis
CHAPTER 16:
Chromosomal Aberrations
STRUCTURAL ABERRATIONS
DELETIONS OR DEFICIENCY
Types of Deletions
Terminal Deletion
Interstitial or Intercalary Deletion
Genetic Effects
Chromosome Mapping
Evolutionary Importance of Deletions
DUPLICATIONS
Tandem Duplication
Reverse Tandem
Displaced Duplication
Occurrence
Genetic Effects
Position Effect
INVERSIONS
Occurrence
Types of Inversion
Paracentric Inversion
Pericentric Inversion
Overlapping Inversions
Role of Inversion in Evolution
TRANSLOCATION
Occurrence
Evolutionary Implications of Translocation
NUMERICAL CHANGES IN CHROMOSOME
ANEUPLOIDY
Classification
Monosomics
Double Monosomics
Nullisomics
Trisomy
Tetrasomy
Pentasomy (2n+3)
Origin of Aneuploidy
AN EUPLOIDY
Haploidy or Monoploidy
Origin
Morphology
Uses of Haploidy
Polyploidy
Autoploids
Distribution
Segmental Alloploids
Autoallopolyploidy
Origin of Polyploidy
CHAPTER 17:
Sex Determination
SEX CHROMOSOMES IN MAN
X-chromosome
Y-chromosome
CHROMOSOMAL BASIS OF SEX DETERMINATION
XX-XO System
XX-XY System
ZZ-ZW System
ZZ -ZO Type
READER’S NOTE
CHAPTER 18:
Cytogenetics and Human Disease
PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE
AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE INHERITANCE
AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT INHERITANCE
X-LINKED RECESSIVE INHERITANCE
X-LINKED DOMINANT INHERITANCE
CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
ANOMALIES OF CHROMOSOME NUMBER
MONOSOMIES
ANOMALIES OF CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE
DELETIONS
TRANSLOCATIONS
INVERSIONS
RING CHROMOSOMES
INSERTIONS
DUPLICATIONS
CHROMOSOMAL ABERRATIONS IN PLANTS
CHAPTER 19:
Basic Microbial Genetics
GENETIC RECOMBINATION IN BACTERIA
Conjugation
Transfer Process
Transformation
THE TRANSFORMATION EXPERIMENTS
Griffith’s Experiment
Transduction
Non-specific
Specific Transduction
CHAPTER 20:
Mutations
FRAMESHIFT MUTATIONS
Deletion
Insertion
Missense Mutations
Nonsense Mutations
Silent Mutations
Reversion and Suppression
Intragenic
Extragenic or Intergenic Suppression
SUPPRESSION OF NONSENSE MUTATIONS
SPONTANEOUS MUTATIONS
INDUCED MUTATIONS
Chemical Mutagens
Base Analogues
Agents Modifying Purines and Pyrimidines or which Labilize the Bases
Nitrous Oxide (NO2)
Hydroxylamine (NH2OH)
Alkylating Agents
Agents Producing Distortions in DNA
Intercalation Resulting in Insertion of Base
Intercalating Resulting in Deletion of Base
RADIATION
ROLE OF MUTATIONS IN PLANT BREEDING
DETECTION OF MUTATIONS
REPLICA PLATING (Lederberg, 1952)
DETECTION BASED ON NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES (Beadle and Tatum, 1946)
DETECTION BASED ON TEMPERATURE SENSITIVITY
DETECTION BASED ON ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY (B.D. Davis, 1942)
DETECTION BY HOST-MEDIATED ASSAY (Marvin Legator)
DETECTION BY AMES TEST (DR BRUCE N AMES, 1983)
SECTION 4: MICROBIOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY
CHAPTER 21:
History of Microbiology
SPALLANZANI (1729-1799)
SIR EDWARD JENNER (1749-1823)
SIR LOUIS PASTEUR (1822-1895)
SIR ROBERT KOCH (1843-1910)
SIR ALEXANDER FLEMMING
JOSEPH LISTER (1827-1912)
CHAPTER 22:
Microscopy
LIGHT MICROSCOPY
THE COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE
DARK FIELD MICROSCOPY
PHASE CONTRAST MICROSCOPY
Principle
Working
Applications
FLUORESCENCE MICROSCOPY
Principle
Working
Applications
STEREOMICROSCOPY
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
SHADOW CASTING
FREEZE ETCHING/CRYOFRACTURING
MODERN INNOVATIONS IN MICROSCOPY
CHAPTER 23:
Sterilization and Disinfection
STERILIZATION
Definition
Use
METHODS
CHOICE OF METHOD
MEASUREMENT OF MICROBIAL DEATH
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RESISTANCE OF MICRO-ORGANISMS
Species or Strain of Micro-organism
Physiological State
Ability to Form Spores
STERILIZATION BY HEAT
Factors Influencing Sterilization by Heat
Minimum Recommended Hold Times for Heat Sterilization
Sterilization by Moist Heat
The Quality of Steam for Sterilization
Sterilization by Dry Heat
Incineration
Red Heat
Flaming
CONCEPT OF STERILIZATION
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STERILIZATION, DISINFECTION AND ASEPSIS
CLASSIFICATION OF STERILIZING METHODS
PHYSICAL METHODS
CHEMICAL METHODS
Sterilization by Heat
STERILIZATION BY DRY HEAT
Mode of Action of Dry Heat
Methods
Structure
Procedure
Precautions
Uses
Merits
Limitations
Sterilization Control
Procedure
Uses
Drawbacks
STERILIZATION BY MOIST HEAT
Mode of Action
Autoclaving Definition
Principle
THE SIMPLE NON-JACKETED LABORATORY AUTOCLAVE
Structure
Procedure
Precautions
Use of Simple Lab Autoclave
Limitations of Simple Lab Autoclave
Importance of Air Discharge
Testing of Autoclave
STEAM JACKETED AUTOCLAVE
Advantages
HIGH PRE-VACUUM STERILIZER
Procedure
Advantages
STERILIZATION BY RADIATION
Ionising Radiations
Mode of Action
Ionisation of Cell Water
Use
Advantages
Disadvantages
NON-IONISING RADIATIONS
Infrared Radiations
Mode of Action
Uses
Ultraviolet Radiations (Upon direct exposure)
Use
Drawback
Sterilization Control for Radiation Methods
FILTRATION
Classification
DEPTH FILTERS
SCREEN FILTERS
Membrane Filters (Fig. 23.4) (or Molecular Filters)
Advantages of Membrane Filter
Methods of Filtration (Technique of Filtration)
Air Filters
Uses of Filters
Control of Filteration
CHEMICAL METHODS OF STERILIZATION
Glutaraldehyde
Formaldehyde
GASEOUS DISINFECTANTS
Ethylene Oxide
Sterilization of Operation Theatre Using Formaldehyde Vapour
Plasma Gas
Sterilization Control
Formaldehyde
Beta Propiolactone (BPL)
CHAPTER 24:
Basis of Taxonomy
METHODS OF CLASSIFICATION
CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA
EUKARYOTIC GENERA
Protozoa
Fungi
Filamentous Bacteria
True Bacteria
Spirochaetes (Fig. 24.3)
Mycoplasmas (Fig. 24.4)
Rickettsiae and Chlamydiae
Typing of Bacteria
Biotyping and Serotyping
Phage Typing
Bacteriocin Typing
Animal Pathogenicity and Toxigenicity
Antibiotic Sensitivity Tests
CHAPTER 25:
Anatomy of the Bacterial Cell
VIRUSES
Viral Nucleic Acid
Viral Proteins
NUTRITIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF MICROBES
Major Nutrient Requirements
Carbon and Energy Source
Nitrogen Source
Other Inorganic Salts
Organic Compounds
Influence of Temperature on Microbes
Influence of Hydrogen Ion Concentration on Microbes
Influence of Osmotic Pressure on Microbes
CHAPTER 26:
Immunology
HISTORY OF IMMUNOLOGY
IMMUNOGLOBULINS
Structure, Function and Types
BASIC STRUCTURE
Light Chain Classes
Heavy Chain Classes
IgG
IgA
IgM
IgD
IgE
ANTIGENS (Ag) OR IMMUNOGENS
Antigenic Determinants
FORCES THAT STABILIZE Ag-Ab COMPLEX
COMPONENTS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
THYMUS
BURSA OF FABRICIUS
B-lymphocytes
LYMPHOCYTES
MONONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTES
MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX (MHC)
BIOLOGY OF THE IMMUNE RESPONSE
HUMORAL IMMUNITY
Selective Theory
Clonal Selection Theory
ANTIGEN-ANTIBODY REACTIONS
Precipitation
Agglutination
Opsonisation
Complement Fixation
Allergic Reactions
CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
Cytotoxic T Cells or Natural Killer (NK) Cells
Helper T Cells
COMPLEMENT SYSTEM
Classical Pathway
Alternate Complement Pathway
Functions of the Complement System
IMMUNOHAEMATOLOGY
Blood Groups and Related Antigens
ABO Blood Group Systems
Significance in Transfusion
Rh GROUPS
Other Blood Grouping Systems Lewis System
Kell System
Duffy System
IMMUNISATION
Passive Immunisation
Active Immunisation
VACCINES
HYPERSENSITIVITY (Allergy)
MECHANISM OF ALLERGIC REACTIONS
Immediate Allergic Reactions
Prevention
Delayed Allergic Reactions
Allergy Management and Treatment
CHAPTER 27:
Body’s Defence Against Viruses
IMMUNOPATHOLOGY
Antigenic Variation
Body’s Defence Against Bacteria
Inflammation
Humoral Immunity
Cell-mediated Immunity
EVASION
Intracellular Bacteria
CHAPTER 28:
Interaction between Micro-organisms
MUTUALISM ‘OR’ SYMBIOSIS
Bacteria within Protozoa Cells
Algae and Fungi Relationship in Lichens
The Protozoan Termite Relationship
Ruminant Animals and Microbial Symbiotic Association
Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria and the Legume
SYNTROPHISM
CHAPTER 29:
Nitrogen Metabolism
NITROGEN CYCLE
Denitrification
Ammonification
Nitrification
Nitrogen Assimilation
Nitrate Reduction
Nitrite Reduction
Reduction of NH2OH
Nitrogen Fixation
MECHANISM OF NITROGEN FIXATION
Mechanism of Nitrogen Fixation (Virtanen 1948)
Studies of Cell Free Nitrogen
CHAPTER 30:
Photosynthesis
STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS OF PLASTIDS
MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Light Reaction
Red Drop and Emerson Effect and Two Pigment Systems
Production of Assimilatory Powers in Photosynthesis
Electron Transport System (ETS) or Reduction of NADP
Schematic Representation of Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation
DARK REACTION
CALVIN CYCLE
Synthesis of Carbohydrate
FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
RESPIRATION
INTRODUCTION
RESPIRATORY FUEL
TYPES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION
RESPIRATION
Oxidative Decarboxylation
Kreb’s Cycle (TCA-Cycle)
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
ATP FORMATION DURING CELL-RESPIRATION
MECHANISM OF OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
Efficiency of Glucose Respiration
Significance of Stepped Cell-Respiration
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
CHAPTER 31:
Industrial Microbiology
FERMENTATION
Fermentors
Conditions
FERMENTATION MEDIA
Molasses
Black Strap Molasses
Corn Steep Liquor
Sulfite Waste Liquor
Growth Factors
Precursors
Buffers
INOCULUM PREPARATION
Contamination
TEMPERATURE REGULATION
RECOVERY STERILIZATIONS
AERATION
Agitation
FOAM CONTROL
PRODUCTION OF WINE
WHITE WINE
RED WINE
CHAMPAGNE TYPE WINES
Champagne Process
Transfer Process
Bulk Fermentation
Carbonation
SHERRY
Solera Process
Submerged Fermentation
Baking Process
Aroma Components of Wine
Aroma Formation by Yeasts
Higher Alcohols
Esters
Fatty Acids
Carbonyl Compounds
Other Compounds
Aroma Formation by Bacteria
BRANDY
Technology
Cognac
Armagnac
Brandy: Aroma Components
Higher Alcohols
Fatty Acids and Esters
Other Compounds
Production of Beer
Lager Beer
Ales
Elements of Brewing Process
Malts
Adjuncts
Water
Hops
Culture Yeast
Miscellaneous Additives
PROCESS
Malting
BREWING
Milling
Mashing
Kettle Boil and Hop Addition
FERMENTATION
Primary Fermentation
Continuous Fermentation
PRODUCTION OF WHISKY
Raw Materials
Mashing and Conversion
Fermentation
Distillation
TYPES
Bourbon Whisky
Rye Whisky
Corn Whisky
Light Whisky
Tennessee Whisky
PRODUCTION OF BAKER’S YEAST
Outline
CARBON AND ENERGY SOURCES
RAW MATERIALS
Nitrogen Sources
Vitamins
Minerals
Fermentation Activaters and Inhibitors
Oxygen Requirement and Aeration
Concentration of Fermentable Sugars
Osmotic Pressure
Yeast Concentration in Fermentor
AEROBIC GROWTH OF BAKER’S YEAST
Fermentation
Fermentation Tanks
Aeration
Cooling
Defoaming
Feed Rates
Sequence of Fermentations
Stability of Compressed Yeast
ACTIVE DRY YEAST (ADY)
Drying Methods
Packaging
Chemical Composition of ADY
Streptomycin
Chemical Structure
Production
Harvest and Recovery of Streptomycin
RIBOFLAVIN
Production
Mechanism
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)
Structure
Production
VITAMIN A
Production
PENICILLIN
Industrial Preparation of Penicillin
Brief History
Penicillin Molecule and Precursors
Penicillin Production
Penicillin Harvest and Recovery
INDEX
TOC
Index
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