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Biochemistry for Dental Students (Theory and Practical)
Shreya Nigoskar
PART-I: THEORY
CHAPTER 1:
Carbohydrates (Quick energy supplier)
INTRODUCTION
Carbohydrate
Biomedical Importance
Carbohydrates are classified into three classes—
I. Monosaccharides
General Properties of Monosaccharides
MUTAROTATION
THE PICTURES CAN BE SEEN IN PART II PRACTICALS
II Oligosachharides
Sucrose
Lactose
Maltose
Isomaltose
Polysaccharides
HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES
Starch
Dextrins
Inulin
Glycogen
Cellulose
Chitin
HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES
MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES
Hyaluronic Acid
Chondroitin Sulfates
Heparin
Dermatan Sulfate
Keratan sulfate
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 2:
Lipids (The concentrated storage form of energy)
DEFINITION AND INTRODUCTION
Properties
Biomedical Importance
Classification of Lipids
I. Simple Lipids
A. Fats—Triacylglycerol or triglycerides (Fig. 2.2)
Simple Triacylglycerol
Mixed Triacylglycerol
Properties of Triacylglycerols
Hydrolytic Rancidity
Oxidative Rancidity
Antioxidants
Lipid peroxidation
B. Waxes
COMPOUND LIPIDS
I. Phosphatidic Acid
II. Sphingomyelin
2. Nonphosphorylated Lipids
3. Steroids
Cholesterol
DERIVED LIPIDS
Biomedical Importance
In Medicine
FUNCTION OF PUFA OR (EFA) ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS
Deficiency Manifestations or Symptoms
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 3:
Proteins (The structural and functional basis of life)
COMPOSITION OF PROTEINS
Classification of Proteins
Classification Based on Nutritional Basis
Class I Proteins
Classification of Proteins Based on Chemical Nature (Table 3.1)
CONJUGATED
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FUNCTIONS
STRUCTURE OF PROTEIN
Primary Structure
II. Secondary Structure
III Tertiary Structure
IV Quarternary Structure
PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS
Physical Properties
Group Tests of Proteins
I. Precipitation Reaction
FOR DETAILS ONE CAN REFER PART II-PRACTICALS
II. Coagulation Reaction
Denaturation
III. Colour Reactions
Requirement of Protein
PLASMA PROTEINS
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 4:
Amino Acids (The building blocks of proteins)
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS
I. On the Basis of Nature of R
Classification on the basis of nature of side chain
II. Reaction in Solution
III. On the Basis of number of Amino and Acidic Group.
IV. On the Basis of Chemical Nature the Amino Acids are Classified as Below
V. On Nutritional Basis
VI. On the Basis of Fate
Occurrence of Amino Acid
Function of Amino Acids
PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACIDS
Physical Properties (Fig. 4.1)
I. Reactions Due to COOH Group
II. Properteis Due to NH2 Group
III. Properties of Amino acids
Clinical Applications
PEPTIDES
Biologically Active Peptides
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5:
Enzyme (The living catalysts)
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
Division of Enzymes
COENZYMES
Definition
Functions of Coenzymes (Table 5.2)
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6:
Digestion, Absorption and Metabolism of Carbohydrates (Burning of instant fuel)
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Digestion in Mouth
Action of Ptyalin (Salivary Amylase)
Digestion in Stomach
Digestion in Duodenum
Action of Pancreatic Amylase (Fig. 6.1)
Digestion in small intestine: Action of intestinal juice
ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Mechanism of Absorption
I. Active Transport Mechanism
II. Simple Diffusion
Metabolism of Carbohydrates
GLYCOLYSIS
Reaction of Glycolysis
I. Energy Investment Phase
II. Splitting Phase
III. Energy Generation Phase
Conversion of Pyruvate to Lactate
PRODUCTION OF ATP
Oxidation of pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
Definition
Citric Acid Cycle
The Centre of Metabolism
Reaction of TCA Cycle (Fig. 6.4)
Reaction of TCA Cycle
Glycogen Metabolisms
Glycogenesis
STEPS OF GLYCOGENESIS (FIG. 6.5)
Pathway for Glycogenesis
II. Glycogenolysis
I. Significance of Gluconeogenesis
II. Occurrence of Gluconeogenesis
III. Reactions of Gluconeogenesis
GLUCONEOGENESIS FROM LACTATE (CORI CYCLE)
REGULATION OF BLOOD SUGAR
Means by Which Sugar is Added to the Blood
Means by Which Sugar is Removed from the Blood
1. Role of Liver
2. Role of Extrahepatic Tissues
3. Role of Hormones
HORMONAL REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE
Growth Hormone
Adrenal Cortex hormones
Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)
DIABETES
Definition
Classification
Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus
Causes of Type I Diabetes
Symptoms of Type I
How to Control IDDM?
CAUSES FOR TYPE II DIABETES MELLITUS
Symptoms of Type II Diabetes Mellitus
How to Control NIDDM?
GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST
Precautions to be Taken before Performing OGTT
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 7:
Digestion, Absorption and Metabolism of Lipids (Consumption of fat depots for energy generation)
METABOLISM OF CHOLESTEROL
Biosynthesis of Cholesterol
Steps of Biosynthesis
1. Synthesis of β-hydroxy β-methylglutaryl CoA (HMG CoA)
2. Formation of Mevalonate
3. Production of Isoprenoid Units
4. Synthesis of Squalene
5. Conversion of Squalene to Cholesterol
DEGRADATION OF CHOLESTEROL
Utilization of Ketone Bodies
Role of Liver in Lipid Metablism
Hormonal Control of Lipid Metabolism
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 8:
Digestion, Absorption and Metabolism of Proteins
PROTEIN TO AMINO ACIDS TO CELLS
DIGESTION IN STOMACH BY GASTRIC ENZYMES
HCl
Pepsin
Renin
DIGESTION OF PROTEINS BY PANCREATIC ENZYMES
DIGESTION OF PROTEINS BY SMALL INTESTINAL ENZYMES
ABSORPTION OF AMINO ACIDS
ABSORPTION OF INTACT PRotein and POLYPEPtIDES
METABOLISM OF PROTEINS
INPUT
I. Sources of Amino Acid Pool
II. Utilization of the Amino Acids (Output) from Amino Acid Pool
CATABOLISM OF AMINO ACIDS
Biomedical Importance
Biosynthesis of Urea
Definition of Transamination
Deamination
Transport of Ammonia
UREA CYCLE
Reaction of Urea Cycle (Fig. 8.7)
Fate of Carbon Skeleton of Amino Acid
Overall Reaction and Energetics of Urea Cycle
Disposal of Urea
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 9:
Vitamins (The accessory factors)
FAT SOLUBLE and WATER SOLUBLE Vitamins
COMMON PROPERTIES
A. Fat Soluble Vitamins
B. Water Soluble Vitamin
Classification of Vitamins (Fig. 9.1)
VITAMIN A
Sources
Daily Requirements
PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS
Wald's Visual Cycle
Deficiency of Vitamin A
VITAMIN D [CALCITRIOL]
Daily Requirements
Physiological Functions
Deficiency Symptoms
VITAMIN E
Physiological Functions
Deficiency Manifestations
VITAMIN K
Daily Requirement
Physiological Function
Deficiency Manifestation
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)
Properties
Sources
Daily Requirements
Physiological Function
Deficiency
THE VITAMINS OF B COMPLEX
Thiamine (Vitamin B1)
Sources
Daily Requirement
Physiological Role
Coenzyme Activities
There are Three Types of Reaction
Deficiency Manifestation
WET BERIBERI
DRY BERIbERI
RIBOFLAVIN (Vitamin B2)
Sources
Physiological Functions
Coenzyme Activities
Deficiency Disorders
NIACIN (Also called as B3)
Sources
Daily Requirement
Physiological Functions
Coenzyme Activities
Deficiency Disorders
PYRIDOXINE [B6]
Daily Requirement
Physiological Functions
Coenzymes Activity
Deficiency Disorders
PANTOTHENIC ACID (B5)
Daily Requirement
Physiological Functions
Coenzyme Activities
Deficiency Symptoms
FOLIC ACID
Daily Requirement
Physiological Functions (Coenzyme Activities)
Deficiency Symptoms
VITAMIN B12
Daily Requirements
Physiological Functions
Deficiency
BIOTIN (B7)
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 10:
Minerals: The Inorganic Elements (Mineral metabolism)
CALCIUM
Physiological Functions
Sources
Daily Requirements
Absorption
Factors promoting Ca2+ absorption
Distribution of Calcium in Body
Blood Calcium
Calcitriol
Parathyroid Hormone
Calcitonin
Disorders of Calcium Metabolism
Hypocalcemia
Hypercalcemia
PHOSPHORUS
Biochemical Importance
Daily Requirements
Sources
Serum Phosphate Level
Disease State
MAGNESIUM
Biochemical Functions
Dietary Requirements
Sources
Serum Mg Level
Disease States
SODIUM
Biochemical Functions
Dietary requirements − 5 to 15 gm/day
Sources
Disease State
Hyponatremia
Hypernatremia
POTASSIUM
Physiological Functions
Daily Requirement: 3–4 gm/day
Sources
Disease States
IRON
Biochemical Functions
Dietary Requirements
Sources
Disease States
COPPER
Physiological Functions
Sources
Other Source
Daily Requirements
Disease State
Wilson's Disease
IODINE
Physiological Functions
Sources
Dietary Requirments
Disease state
MANGANESE
Biochemical Functions
Sources
Daily requirements: 2–9 mg/day:
Disease State
ZINC
Physiological Functions
Daily Requirement
Deficiency Disorders
FLUORINE [MAIN ROLE IN DENTAL CARE]
Biochemical Functions
Dietary Requirements
Sources
Disease States
SELENIUM
Biochemical Functions
Deficiency in Humans
Keshan Diseases
Kashin-Beck Diseases
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 11:
Nutrition
FOR HUMAN HEALTH AND WELFARE
Definition
Nutrition and Energy
Energy Content of Foods
Calorific Value of Foodstuffs
RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT
Carbohydrates
Fats
Proteins
Mixed Diet
UTILIZATION OF ENERGY IN MAN
BMR:-[Basal metabolic rate]
Definition
Factors Affecting BMR
Significance of BMR
SPECIFIC DYNAMIC ACTION
Nutritional Importance of Fibres
Beneficial Effects of Fibres
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA)
Balanced Diet
Definition
Nutritional Disorders
SUMMARY
PART-II: PRACTICAL
CHAPTER 12:
Carbohydrates
CHAPTER 13:
Lipids
EMULSIFICATION
SAPONIFICATION
GREASE-SPOT TEST
UNSATURATION TEST
CHOLESTEROL
1. Salkowski's Test
2. Formaldehyde–H2SO4 Test
CHAPTER 14:
Proteins
COLOUR REACTION OF PROTEINS
1. Biuret Test
2. Ninhydrin Test (The Triketohydrintene hydrate test)
3. Millon's Test (Test for Tyrosine)
4. Xanthoproteic Reaction (For Tyrosine, Phenylalanine and Tryptophan)
COAGULATION REACTION
1. Heat Coagulation
2. Coagulation with Conc HNO3
3. Precipitation Reaction
1. Precipitation by Salts of Heavy Metals
2. Precipitation by Alkalodial Regent
3. Precipitation by Neutral Salts
4. Precipitation by Alcohol
CHAPTER 15:
Urine
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Frequency of Urination
Preservation of the Urine Sample
Volume
Colour
Specific Gravity
Appearance
Odour
CHEMINAL CHARACTERISTICS
A. Reaction
THE CHIEF NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS OF NORMAL URINE
I. Biuret Test
II. Benedict's Test for Uric Acid and Urates
III. Jaffe's Test for Creatine
The Chief Non-nitrogenous Constituents of Normal urine
1. Chlorides
2. Sulphates
3. Phosphates
Abnormal Constituents of Urine
1. Reducing Sugars
Benedict's Test
Benedict's Qualitative Reagent
Discussion
2. Ketone Bodies
Discussion
3. Albumin
Discussion
4. Blood Pigments (Benzidine test)
Discussion
Hays Test for Bile salts
Abnormal Constituents of Urine
INDEX
TOC
Index
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