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Handbook of Biochemistry (For Allied and Nursing Students)
Shivananda Nayak B
1:
The Cell
ULTRASTRUCTURE
Plasma Membrane
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Complex
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Mitochondria
Centrioles
Nucleus
TRANSPORT ACROSS MEMBRANE
Passive Transport
Uniport, Symport and Antiport
Active Transport
Exocytosis
Endocytosis
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
2:
Enzymes
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
ENZYME SPECIFICITY
MICHAELIS-MENTEN EQUATION
Introduction
Lineweaver-Burke Plot
Enzyme Inhibitor
Competitive Inhibition
Noncompetitive Inhibition
Feedback Inhibition
Allosteric Enzymes
Isoenzymes
Diagnostic Enzymes
Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH)
Cardiac Enzymes in Myocardial Infarction
CK AND CKMB
AST
LDH1 AND LDH
Phosphatases
Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP)
Acid Phosphatases (ACP)
Gamma-glutamyl Transferase (GGT)
Clinical Significance
Amylase
Clinical Significance
Lipase
Cholinesterase
Glucose-6-PO4 Dehydrogenase (G-6-P-D)
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
3:
Chemistry of Amino Acids and Proteins
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS
Essential and Nonessential Amino Acids
Essential Amino Acids
Glucogenic and Ketogenic Amino Acids
Peptides and Peptide Bond
Naturally Occurring Peptides
Charge Properties of Amino Acids and Proteins
Classification of Proteins
Biological Role of Proteins
General Functions of Proteins
STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
Primary Structure
Secondary Structure
Tertiary Structure
Quaternary Structure
Denaturation of proteins
Modification of Protein after Denaturation
Plasma Proteins
Albumin
Functions of Albumin
Osmotic Function
Transport Function
Nutritive Functions
Buffering Action
Globulins
Fibrinogen
Proteins Belong to Different Globulins
α1-globulin
α2-globulins
Bence Jones Protein
Immunoglobulin (Ig)
Structure of Immunoglobulin (Fig. 3.6)
FUNCTIONS
IgG
IgA
IgM
IgD
IgE
Tests for Protein and Amino Acids
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
4:
Metabolism of Amino Acids
CATABOLISM OF AMINO ACIDS
Removal of Amino Groups
UREA CYCLE (Krebs-Henseleit Cycle)
CATABOLISM OF CARBON SKELETON OF AMINO ACIDS
METABOLISM OF IMPORTANT AMINO ACIDS
Metabolic Fate of Glutamate
Phenylketonuria
Metabolic Fate of Tyrosine
Tyrosinemia
Alkaptonuria
Synthesis of Dopamine, Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
Melanin
Synthesis of T3 and T4
Metabolism of Tryptophan
Metabolic Fate of Tryptophan
Synthesis of Serotonin
Histidine Metabolism
Catabolism (Fig. 4.2)
FIGLU Excretion Test
Metabolism of Branched Chain Amino Acids
Maple Syrup Urine Disease
Methionine
S-adenosyl Methionine (SAM)
Formylmethionine
Synthesis of Creatine
Methionine Catabolism
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
5:
Chemistry of Carbohydrates
ISOMERISM IN CARBOHYDRATES
Stereoisomerism
Optical Activity
Inversion
Glycosidic Bond
Reduction Tests
Benedict's Test
Special Carbohydrates
Glycoprotein and Proteoglycan
Glycoprotein
Proteoglycans
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
6:
Metabolism of Carbohydrates
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Digestion of Carbohydrates
Digestion of Important Food Products
Absorption of Monosaccharides
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES
GLYCOLYSIS
Aerobic Glycolysis
Reactions of Aerobic Glycolysis
Steps 5 and 10 are linked
Energetics of Aerobic Glycolysis per Glucose Molecule
Energetics of Anaerobic Glycolysis
Shuttle Pathways
Regulation
Role of Fructose 2, 6-bisphosphate
Regulation by PFK-2
Rapaport Leubering Cycle (BPG Shunt)
FATES OF PYRUVATE
KREBS CITRIC ACID CYCLE
Role of TCA Cycle
Anaplerosis
Regulation of TCA Cycle
GLUCONEOGENESIS
Regulation of Gluconeogenesis
Substrates for Gluconeogenesis
Cori's Cycle
Metabolism of Glycogen
Glycogenesis
GLYCOGENOLYSIS
Muscle Glycogenolysis
Regulation of Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis
Allosteric Regulation
GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASES
von Gierke Disease
HMP SHUNT OR PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY OR PHOSPHOGLUCONATE PATHWAY
Significance of HMP Shunt
Glucose-6-phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency
GALACTOSE METABOLISM
Galactosemia
Fate of Galactose
Fructose Metabolism
Uronic Acid Pathway
Importance of UDP Glucuronate
Sorbitol Pathway (Polyol Pathway)
Aldolase
Sorbitol Dehydrogenase
BLOOD GLUCOSE REGULATION
Postprandial Blood Sugar Regulation
Fasting Blood Sugar Regulation
Regulation by Hormones
Insulin (Hypoglycemic hormone)
Glucagon
Cortisol
Adrenaline
Growth hormone
Factors Stimulating Insulin Secretion
Factors Inhibiting Insulin Secretion
Metabolic Effects of Insulin
Mechanism of Action of Insulin
Signal Transduction (Flow Chart 6.2)
Insulin-mediated Glucose Transport
Insulin-mediated Enzyme Synthesis
Glucagon
Mechanism of Action (Flow chart 6.3)
Glucocorticoid
DIABETES MELLITUS
Type I or Insulin-dependent Diabetes Mellitus
Type II or Non-insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus
Criteria for the Diagnosis
Diabetes due to Secondary Causes
Metabolic Changes in Diabetes Mellitus
Clinical Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
Retinopathy
Neuropathy
Angiopathy
Nephropathy
Hyperlipidemia and Atherosclerosis
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Coma (HHNC)
Lactic Acidosis
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
7:
Lipid Chemistry
PROSTAGLANDINS
Synthesis
Inhibition of PG Synthesis
Degradation
Biochemical Actions of Prostaglandins
Regulation of Blood Pressure
Inflammation
Reproduction
Pain and Fever
Prevention of Gastric Ulcer
Effects on Respiratory Function
Influence on Renal Function
Metabolism
Platelet Aggregation and Thrombosis
Leukotrienes
Lipotropic Factors
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
8:
Metabolism of Lipids
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF LIPIDS
OXIDATION OF FATTY ACIDS
β-oxidation of Fatty Acid
Energetics of β-oxidation of Palmitic Acid
ω-oxidation
Oxidation of Odd Chain Fatty Acids
SIDS
BIOSYNTHESIS OR DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACID
Regulation
CHOLESTEROL METABOLISM
Synthesis
Regulation of Cholesterol Synthesis
Role of LCAT
Metabolic Fate of Cholesterol
Ketone Body Formation and Utilization
Formation of Keton Bodies
Utilization of Ketone Bodies (Ketolysis)
Regulation
Role of Liver in Lipid Metabolism
Regulation of Lipid Metabolism
INTEGRATION OF METABOLISM
ALCOHOL METABOLISM
Metabolic Fates of NADH
Pyruvic Acid to Lactic Acid
Synthesis of Lipids
Electron Transport Chain
Alcoholism Effects
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
9:
Hemoglobin Synthesis
INTRODUCTION
Structure of Heme
Normal Hemoglobin
Heme Synthesis
Globin Synthesis
Regulation of Heme Biosynthesis
Heme Catabolism
Clinical Aspect of Heme Metabolism
Abnormal Hemoglobin
Hemoglobinopathy
Thalassemias
Sickle Cell Hemoglobin (HbS)
Clinical Symptoms
Detection of Abnormal Hb
Electrophoresis of Hbs
Reference Range
Reference Range:
Derived Hemoglobin Compounds
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
10:
Hormones
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION
11:
Acid-base Balance
INTRODUCTION
Buffers
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
H+ Balance
Regulation of Acid-base Balance
Blood Buffer System
ECF Buffers
Bicarbonate Buffer System
Phosphate Buffer System
Protein Buffer System
Respiratory Regulation of Acid-base Balance
Renal Regulation of pH
Acid-base Disorders
Metabolic Acidosis (HCO3− deficit or fall in pH)
Metabolic Alkalosis (HCO3− excess or rise in pH)
Respiratory Acidosis (Excess CO2)
Respiratory Alkalosis (CO2 deficit)
Anion Gap
ASSESMENT OF ACID-BASE ANALYSERS
Laboratory Findings in Acid-base Disturbances
Reference List for Acid-base Disturbance
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
12:
Biological Oxidation
PRINCIPLES OF REDUCTION-OXIDATION (REDOX) REACTIONS
Complexes of the Electron Transport Chain
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Regulation of Oxidative Phosphorylation
Inhibitors of Oxidative Phosphorylation
Energy from Cytosolic NADH
13:
Vitamins
VITAMIN A
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance (RDA)
Physiological Role
Deficiency
Hypervitaminosis
VITAMIN D
SOURCES
Required Dietary Allowance
Regulation of Formation of 1, 25 (OH) 2 Vitamin D3
Functions
Deficiency
VITAMIN E (TOCOPHEROL)
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance
Functions
Deficiency
VITAMIN K
Sources
Functions
Required Dietary Allowance
Deficiency
Antagonists
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
VITAMIN C (Ascorbic Acid)
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance
Functions
Deficiency
B-COMPLEX VITAMINS
THIAMINE (B1)
Source
Required Dietary Allowance
Functions
Deficiency
Dry Beriberi
Wet Beriberi
RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2)
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance
Functions of FMN and FAD
Deficiency Symptoms
NIACIN (NICOTINIC ACID)
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance
Coenzyme Forms
Deficiency
PYRIDOXINE (B6)
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance
Deficiency Symptoms
Antagonists
BIOTIN
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance
Antivitamin
Deficiency Symptoms
Antagonists
PANTOTHENIC ACID
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance
Deficiency
FOLIC ACID
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance
Deficiency
VITAMIN B12 (Cobalamin)
Required Dietary Allowance
Absorption
Deficiency
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
14:
Minerals and Electrolyte Metabolism
CALCIUM (CA)
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance
Absorption
Calcium Content of Body and Blood
Functions
Regulation of Serum Calcium Level
Action of Vitamin D
Action of PTH on Kidney and Bone
Action of Calcitonin
Hypocalcemia
Hypercalcemia
PHOSPHORUS (P)
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance
Phosphorus Content of Body and Blood
Functions
MAGNESIUM (mg)
Source
Required Dietary Allowance
Functions
Deficiency
SODIUM (NA+)
Sources
Functions
Deficiency
Cause
POTASSIUM (K+)
Sources
Functions
CHLORIDE (CL−)
Functions
IRON (fe)
Sources
Functions
Examples of Heme proteins
Examples for Nonheme Proteins
Required Dietary Allowance
Required Dietary Allowance (RDA)
Dietary Source
Iron Absorption
Mechanism of Iron Absorption
Transport in Blood
Serum Content
Deficiency
Hemochromatosis
COPPER (Cu)
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance
Functions
Transport in Blood
Deficiency
ZINC (Zn)
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance
Functions
MANGANESE (Mn)
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance
Functions
MOLYBDENUM (Mo)
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance
Metabolic Functions
COBALT (Co) Sources
Function
SELENIUM (Se)
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance
FLUORIDE (F)
Sources
Required Dietary Allowance
Functions
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
15:
Nutrition
CALORIE
Caloric Values of Carbohydrates, Fat and Protein
Respiratory Quotient of Food Stuffs
Carbohydrates
Fats
Proteins
Importance of Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats
Carbohydrates
Protein
Complete and Incomplete Proteins
Protein and Weight Gain
Protein and Weight Loss
Recommended Daily Allowance for Protein
Fats
Saturated Fats and its Risks
DIETARY FIBER
IMPORTANCE
The Use of Fiber in the Irritable Bowel
Fiber and Colon Polyps/Cancer
Fiber and Diverticulosis
Fiber, Cholesterol and Gas
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
MEASUREMENT OF METABOLIC RATE OR ENERGY EXPENDITURE
Factors which Affect Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
Calculation of BMR
Methods of Determining Caloric Needs
Activity Multiplier
Example
Specific Dynamic Action
Biological Value of a Protein (BVP)
Nitrogen Balance
Balanced Diet
Protein-energy Malnutrition (PEM) or Protein-calorie Malnutrition (PCM)
Causes
KWASHIORKAR
Symptoms
Pathologic and Biochemical Changes
MARASMUS
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
16:
Nucleic Acids
RNA SYNTHESIS (TRANSCRIPTION)
Genetic Code
Translation
Steps of Protein Synthesis
Post-translational Modification of Proteins
Carbohydrate Linkage to Protein
Acylation
Methylation
Phosphorylation
Sulfation
Vitamin C-dependent Modifications
Vitamin K-dependent Modifications
Inhibitors of Replication, Transcription and Translation (Table 16.2)
RECOMBINANT TECHNOLOGY
Production of Recombinant DNA Molecules (Fig. 16.10)
Amplification of DNA by the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Southern Blotting
32P Labeled ATP
Prehybridization
Northern Blotting
Western Blotting
Making a Primary Antibody
Restriction Enzymes
Plasmid
Manipulation of Plasmids
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
Libraries (Fig. 16.15)
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
17:
Biosynthesis of Purine Nucleotide
DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF PURINE Nucleotides
Regulation of Purine Nucleotide Synthesis
Salvage of Purine Nucleotides
Catabolism of Purine Nucleotides
Inhibitors of Purine Nucleotide Synthesis
Clinical Significance of Purine Synthesis
Biosynthesis of Pyrimidine Nucleotides
Regulation of Pyrimidine Nucleotide Biosynthesis
Catabolism of Pyrimidines
Clinical Disorder of Pyrimidine Metabolism
Orotic Aciduria Type I
Orotic aciduria Type II
Orotic Aciduria with no Hematologic Features
Beta-aminoisobutyric Aciduria
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
18:
Liver and Renal Function Tests
LIVER FUNCTION TEST (LFT)
Indications of LFT
Total protein, Albumin and Globulin
Jaundice
Formation and Metabolism of Bilirubin
Fouchets Test for Urine Bilirubin
Hay's Test for Bile Salts
Urobilinogen in Urine and Feces
Normal Values
Serum Enzymes in Liver Disease
Serum Transaminases: AST and ALT
Alkaline Phosphatase
Gamma-glutamyl Transferase (GGT) Estimation
RENAL FUNCTION TESTS
Introduction
Functions of Kidney
Clearance Test
Creatinine Clearance Test
Study of Elimination of NPN Substances
Urea
Clinical Significance
Creatinine
Interpretation
Uric Acid
Determination of Amino Acids
Aminoaciduria
Pathological Conditions of the Kidney
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
19:
Instrumentation and Techniques
SPECTROPHOTOMETRY
Principles of Spectrophotometry/Colorimetry
Instrumentation
Source of Light
Monochromator
Applications
CENTRIFUGATION
Types of Centrifuges
Application of Centrifugation
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
State whether the Given Statements are True (T) or False (F)
Fill in the Blanks
Short Answer Questions
ELECTROPHORESIS AND CHROMATOGRAPHY
Introduction
General Principle of Electrophoresis
Types of Electrophoresis
Applications
CHROMATOGRAPHY TECHNIQUE
General Principle
Classification of Chromatography
Principle of Partition Chromatography
Descending Type of Paper Chromatography
Adsorption Chromatography
Gas-liquid Chromatography
Ion-exchange Chromatography
Gel Filtration Chromatography
Affinity Chromatography
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
IMMUNOASSAY TECHNIQUES
Radio Immunoassay
Antibody
Antigen
Principle of RIA
Applications of RIA
ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY (ELISA)
Applications of ELISA
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
INDEX
TOC
Index
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