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Medical Physiology Made Easy
Harish Gupta, Dinesh Patidar
CHAPTER 1:
General Physiology
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION
Branches of Physiology
Branches of Experimental Physiology
Organization of Human Body
Systems Covered in Physiology
Evolution or Orgin of Life
Basic Characteristics of Human or Living Organisms
Composition of Human Body
Body Fluid Comportments (Fig. 1.1)
Exchange of Fluid Through Blood Capillaries
Pressures Responsible for Exchange of Fluid Through Capillaries (Fig. 1.2)
Common Causes of Edema
Chemical Composition of ECF and ICF (Fig. 1.3)
INTRODUCTION
Factors Involved in Homeostasis
CONTROL MECHANISM OF HOMEOSTASIS (FIG. 1.4)
Examples:
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL SYSTEM
VARIOUS SYSTEMS, WHICH TAKE PART IN HOMEOSTASIS
Complication of Hypovolumia
Free Acidity
Total Acidity
Hydrogen Ion Concentration
Regulation of Acid Base Balance
Ratio of H+ and HCO3− Ions in the Body
CHAPTER 2:
Cell Physiology
DEFINITION
CELL MEMBRANE
Composition of Cell Membrane
Structure of Cell Membrane (Fig. 2.2)
Functional Significance of Protein Layer
Functional Significance of Lipid Layer
Functional Significance of Glycocalyx (Carbohydrate Layer)
Functions of Cell Membrane
CYTOPLASM
Organelles in Cell Cytoplasm
Other Components of Cytoplasm
Functions of Cell Organelles
NUCLEUS
Structure of Nucleus
Nuclei
Nucleoplasm
Functions of Nucleus
SCHEME OF GENETIC CONTROL OF CELL FUNCTION
TRANSPORT ACROSS CELL MEMBRANE (FIG 2.4)
WAYS OF TRANSPORT ACROSS CELL MEMBRANE
Passive Transport
Definition
A. Simple Diffusion
Protein Channels (Fig 2.5)
B. Facilitated Diffusion (Carrier-Mediated Diffusion)
Effects of Concentration of Substances on Rate of Diffusion (Fig 2.6B)
Osmosis
Active Transport
Types of Active Transport
Na+ - K+ pump
ENDOCYSTOSIS
Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis
EXOCYTOSIS
MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
MEMBRANE ACTION POTENTIAL (AP)
Definition
Origin of Action Potential
Phases of AP in a nerve cell (Neuron)
CHAPTER 3:
Blood
INTRODUCTION
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
FORMED ELEMENTS OR CELLS OF BLOOD
PLASMA
CONSTITUENTS OF PLASMA (FIG. 3.1)
Origin of Plasma Proteins
Forms of Plasma Proteins
Forms of Globulins
Functions of Plasma Proteins
APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
Hypoproteinemia
C-Reactive Proteins
INTRODUCTION
STRUCTURE OF HEMOGLOBIN (FIG. 3.2)
Synthesis of Hb
Substances Required for Hb Synthesis
CATABOLISM OF HB (FIG. 3.3)
Compounds of HB
Verities of Hb
Normal Values of Hb
Functions of Hb
INTRODUCTION
Advantages of Biconcavity
Structure of RBC
Composition of RBCs
RBCs Count
Life Span of RBC
Functions of RBC
Variations in Shape and Size of RBC
Physiological Polycythemia
Physiological Variation of RBC
Pathological Variations
ERYTHROPOIESIS
Theories of Hemopoiesis
Regulation of Erythropoiesis (Fig. 3.5)
Definition
Grades of Anemia
ETIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ANEMIAS [BASED ON CAUSES]
A. Hemorrhagic Anemia
Causes of Chronic Anemia
B. Nutritional or Dietary Deficient Anemia
C. Dysfunction of Bone Marrow
D. Hemolytic Anemia
MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION: (BASED ON MORPHOLOGY OR SHAPE AND SIZE OF RBCS)
SYMPTOMS OF ANEMIA
Treatment of Nutritional Deficiency Anemia
Definition
Symptoms Prior to Appearance of Yellow Tinge in Eyes
Formation of Bilirubin
Physiological Jaundice
Classification of Jaundice
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF JAUNDICE
INTRODUCTION
LEUCOCYTOSIS
Physiological Variations of WBCs
Leucopenia
Causes
Leukemia [Blood cancer]
MORPHOLOGY OF WBC CELLS
1. Neutrophil Cells (polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes)
Functions of WBCs
2. Eosinophil Cells
Functions of Eosinophils
Causes
3. Basophil cells
Functions of Basophil Cells
AGRANULOCYTES
1. Lymphocytes
Functions of Lymphocytes
2. Monocytes
Functions of Monocytes
Monocytosis
PROPERTIES OF WBCS
Life Span of WBC Cells
THROMBOCYTES OR BLOOD PLATELETS
Structure
PROPERTIES OF PLATELETS
Function of Platelets
Thrombopoiesis
Definition
Mechanism of Hemostasis
Series of Events Involved in Hemostasis
Simplified Stages of Blood Coagulation
Coagulation Factors Present in Blood
EXTRINSIC MECHANISM OF COAGULATION
INTRINSIC MECHANISM OF COAGULATION
FACTORS PREVENTING CLOT FORMATION DURING CIRCULATION
ANTI-COAGULANTS
Definition
A. Natural Anti-coagulants
Mechanism of Action of Heparin
B. Synthetic Anticoagulants
Vitamin K antagonist
Lab Anticoagulants
Other Substances, which Prevent Blood Coagulation
Physical Methods to Prevent Coagulation
COAGULATION TESTS
HEMORRHAGIC DISORDERS OR BLEEDING DISORDERS
Defective Blood Clotting
Causes
Diagnosis
Types of Purpura
Diagnosis
Causes
Complication of Thrombosis
INTRODUCTION
Classical ABO System
Classical ABO Blood Group and Their Frequency of Distribution
Landsteiner's law of Blood groups
FOUR BLOOD GROUPS
Inheritance of Blood Group i.e. of Classical ABO
Inheritance of Blood Group
Determination of ABO Blood Group
Four glass slide test
Importance of ABO Blood Group
Direct or Cross Matching
Rh factor
Inheritance of Rh-antigen
Transfusion reaction due to Rh incompatibility
HEMOLYTIC DISEASE OF NEWBORN
Erythroblastosis Fetalis
Hazards of Mismatched Blood Transfusion
CHAPTER 4:
Nerve and Muscle
NERVE CELL OR NEURON
STRUCTURE OF NERVE FIBERS
CLASSIFICATION OF NERVE FIBERS
PROPERTIES OF NERVE FIBERS
A. Excitability
B. Conductibility
Mechanism of Conduction of Action Potential
SALTATORY CONDUCTION (FIG 4.2)
NERVE ACTION POTENTIAL
Properties of Action Potential
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL IN A NERVE FIBER
OPERATION OF NA+ - K+ PUMP
C. Refractory Period
Types of Refractory Period
D. Summation
E. Adaptation
Causes
F. In-fatigability or Non-fatigability
G. All or None Law (All or Nothing Law)
DEGENERATION IN A PERIPHERAL NERVE FIBER (FIGS 4.5A AND B)
Causes of Injury
Levels of Degeneration
Stages of Destruction of Myelin Sheath
REGENERATION IN A MYELINATED NERVE FIBER
Regeneration in Proximal End
Complications of Degeneration and Regeneration of Nerve Fiber
Criteria for Regeneration of Nerve Fiber
INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLE
Anatomical Classification
Functional Classification
Depending on Nerve Supply
Depending on Color
Depending on Speed of Working
STRUCTURE OF MUSCLE
Skeletal Muscle
Composition of Skeletal muscle
Skeletal Muscle Proteins: 5 types (Fig 4.6)
Structure of Composite Muscle
SKELETAL MUSCLE CONSISTS OF SARCOMERE
SARCOTUBULAR SYSTEM IN THE SKELETAL MUSCLE (FIG 4.7)
PROPERTIES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
A. Excitability
Types of Stimuli
Quality of Stimuli
B. Contractility
Types of Contraction
Simple Muscle Curve (Fig. 4.8)
Factors Affecting Force of Contraction
Effect of Two Successive Stimuli (Fig. 4.9)
Effects of Warm Saline
Effects of Cold Saline
C. Refractory Period
Types of Refractory Period
D. Summation
Summation Occur in Two Ways
E. Tetanus (Fig 4.11)
F. Muscle Fatigue (Fig 4.12)
Rigor Mortis
Cause
Skeletal Muscle Action Potential
Drugs Which Increase Stimulation of Muscle Fibers
Drugs, Which Block the Muscle Fibers
NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION OR MYONEURAL JUNCTION
PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY OF NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
Flow Chart of Neuro-Muscular Transmission
EXCITATION-CONTRACTION COUPLING
Definition
Steps in Muscle Contraction
Steps During Muscle Relaxation
Conclusion
ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF EXCITATION CONTRACTION COUPLING DURING CONTRACTION
MOLECULAR BASIS OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION OR SLIDING THEORY OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
CHEMICAL CHANGES DURING MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Liberation of Energy
Fate of Pyruvic Acid (Fig. 4.16)
GYCOLYSIS, Embden-Meyerhof Pathway
Citric Acid Cycle [or Krebs Cycle or TCA Cycle]
Chart of Krebs Cycle
Pyruvic Acid Enters into Krebs Cycle or TCA Cycle
In Aerobic Glycolysis
Causes of Muscle Fatigue
Causes
Thermal Changes During Muscle Contraction
APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
Myasthenia Gravis
Line of Treatment
Acute Anterior Poliomyelitis
CHAPTER 5:
Cardio-Vascular System
FUNCTIONS OF CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
ORGANS OF CVS
Big Veins of CVS (Flowchart 5.1)
DIVISION OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
COURSE OF BLOOD
PULMONARY CIRCULATION
ANATOMY OF HUMAN HEART (FIG. 5.1)
Course of Blood: Systemic Circulation
VALVES OF THE HEARTS (FIG. 5.3)
Action of Valves
Valves of Veins
FACTORS THAT MAINTAIN CIRCULATION
Coverings of the Heart
Functions of Pericardium
Pericardial Effusion
Heart Block
Structure and Properties of Cardiac Muscle
PROPERTIES OF CARDIAC MUSCLE (FIGS 5.6A AND B)
A. Rhythmicity
B. Conductivity
CONTROL OF RATE OF CONDUCTION
C. Excitability
Pace Maker Potential
Phases of Action Potential
Causes of Phases
D. Contractility
E. Refractory Period
DEFINITION
INTER-RELATIONS BETWEEN VARIOUS EVENTS
SEQUENCE OF EVENTS IN CARDIAC CYCLE (FIGS 5.9A AND B)
SUMMARY OF DETAILED EVENTS OF CARDIAC CYCLE
A. Atrial Events
Atrial Systole
Atrial Diastole
B. Ventricular Events
Ventricular Systole
Ventricular Diastole
Cause of Cardiac Cycle
Length or Duration of Diastole: [much more important than systole]
Importance of Duration of Ventricular Diastole
Left-ventricular Pressure Curve
Peak Pressure Changes
Left Ventricular Volume Curve
DEFINITION
PHONOCARDIOGRAPHY
1. First Heart Sound
Significance
2. Second Heart Sound
Relationship or Co-relation
Significance
3. Third Heart Sound
4. Fourth Heart Sound
AUSCULTATORY AREAS ON THE CHEST WALL
MURMURS OR BRUITS
Definition
VALVE DISEASES
DEFINITION
RECORDING OF ECG
EINTHOVON'S TRIANGLE
Generation of Electric Currents/electric Activity
LEADS USED FOR RECORDING OF ECG
WAVES OF ECG (FIGS 5.13A AND B)
Causes of Waves and Their Time Duration
Causes
Normal Deviation of ECG Waves in Different Leads
Significance of Recording of ECG
APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
Angina Pectoris
Cause of Referred Pain
Angiography
Myocardial Infarction
Definition
CARDIAC INDEX
Definition
Distribution of Cardiac Output in Main Organs of Body
FACTORS CONTROLLING CARDIAC OUTPUT
Main Differences Between: Homometric and Heterometric Regulation of Cardiac Output
DETERMINATION OF CARDIAC OUTPUT
1. Sympathetic Innervation
Course
Mode of Action of Sympathetic Innervation
Conclusion
2. Parasympathetic Innervation
Course
Stimulation of the Parasympathetic Innervation
Conclusion
VAGAL TONE
Peripheral Innervations of Blood Vessels
PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATIONS OF HEART RATE
PATHOLOGICAL VARIATION OF HEART RATE
REGULATION OF HEART RATE
Decreased Heart Rate
Factors Affecting Heart Rate
CORONARY CIRCULATION
Anatomic Considerations
Venous Drainage System
Variation in Dominance
Compression During Systole
Variations in Coronary Flow
DEFINITION
Physiological Variation of Arterial Blood Pressure
Determinants of Arterial Blood Pressure or Factors Affecting Arterial Blood Pressure
Peripheral Resistance Depends Upon
MEASUREMENT OF ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE
A. Direct Method
B. Indirect Method
REGULATION OF ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE
SHORT-TERM REGULATION OF ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE
1. Neural Mechanism
VASOMOTOR CENTERS
Stimulation of Chemoreceptors
LONG-TERM REGULATION OF ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE OR RENAL BODY FLUID MECHANISM IN CONTROL OF ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE
Renal Body Fluid Mechanism for Control of Arterial Blood Pressure
Role of Kidney in Controlling Arterial Blood Pressure By Renin-Angiotensin-Vasoconstrictor Mechanism
Definition
Physiological Causes of Shock
Stages of Shock
Sequence of Events Leading to Death in Hemorrhagic Shock
Physiological Compensatory Mechanisms to Help Arterial Blood Pressure
Sympathetic Stimulation will lead to Following Changes
Non-progressive or Compensatory Shock
Progressive Shock (CVS deterioration)
NEUROGENIC SHOCK
Causes
VASO-VAGAL SYNCOPE: (EMOTIONAL FAINTING)
HYPERTENSION
Types of Hypertension
Lethal or Dangerous Effects of Hypertension
Treatment of Hypertension
HYPOTENSION
Cardiovascular Changes during Muscular Exercise
Changes in Heart
CHAPTER 6:
Respiratory System
RESPIRATORY FUNCTIONS OF LUNGS
NON-RESPIRATORY FUNCTIONS OF LUNGS
Diagram of Primary Lobules of the Lung
PHASES OF RESPIRATION
Types of Respiration (Fig. 6.3)
COVERINGS OF LUNGS
Abnormalities of Pleural Cavity
Thoracic Cage
Muscles of Respiration
A. Muscles of Inspiration
B. Muscles of Expiration
Accessory Muscles of Respiration
Movements of Diaphragm
Movements of External Intercoastal Muscles
INTRAPLEURAL AND INTRA-PULMONARY PRESSURES
Intrapulmonary or Intra-alveolar Pressure
Significance of Negative Intra-pulmonary Pressure During Inspiration
Trans-pulmonary Pressure
Collapsing Tendency of the Lungs
SURFACTANT
Pulmonary Lung Volumes
Breath Sounds
PULMONARY CAPACITIES
Resting Minute Ventilation (RMV)
Collection of Expired Air
Alveolar Ventilation
Definition
Vital Capacity
Definition
Partial Pressure of O2 and CO2 in
Composition of Alveolar Air Atmosphere Air and Expired Air
Gas Content of Arterial and Venous Blood
Tension of O2 and CO2 in Arterial and Venous Blood
Respiratory Membrane
DIFFUSION OF O2 AND CO2 ACROSS RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE
Carriage of O2 in the Tissues
Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve
The Factors Affecting O2 –Hb Dissociation Curve
Advantages of Three Effects
TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE
Modes of Transport of CO2
Reverse Chloride Shift
To Summaries CO2 Transport
Alkali Reserve
CO2–Dissociation Curve (Fig. 6.16)
Respiratory Centers (Figs 6.17A and B)
Levels of Respiratory Centers
Rhythmic Function of DRG
Role of DRG
Inspiratory ‘RAMP’ Signal (Fig. 6.20)
Advantage of RAMP Signal
Role of VRG
Role of Pneumotaxic Center
Role of Apneustic Center
Recent Concept Regarding the Role of Apneustic Center
Hering-Breuer Reflex (Fig. 6.21)
Pathway of Hering-Breuer Reflex
CHEMICAL REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
Chemo-receptors
A. Central Chemo-receptors Or Chemo-sensitive Area (Fig. 6.22)
Stimulation of Central Chemoreceptors
Effects of Low PO2 on Central Chemoreceptors
B. Peripheral Chemoreceptors
Effects of Low PO2 on Peripheral Chemoreceptors (Fig. 6.24)
Effect of Low Arterial PO2 on Nerve Impulses on Carotid Bodies
The Effect of Increased PCO2 and Increased H+ ion in Arterial Blood on Chemoreceptors
CONCLUSION
Definition
Hypoxemia
Classification of Hypoxia (Table 6.1)
A. Hypoxic Hypoxia
B. Anemic Hypoxia
C. Stagnant Hypoxia/Hypo-Kinetic Hypoxia
D. Histotoxic Hypoxia
EFFECTS OF HYPOXIA
Symptoms of Acute Mountain Sickness
Immediate Effects
Chronic Mountain Sickness
Delayed Effects
Cheyne-Stokes Breathing or Periodic Breathing
ACCLIMATIZATION
Definition
ASPHYXIA
Definition
Essential Conditions of Asphyxia
Classification of Asphyxia
Stages of Asphyxia
Symptoms
Symptoms
Causes
Symptoms
Causes
DYSPNEA
Definition
Predisposing Factors of Dyspnea
Exiting Factors of Dyspnea
CYANOSIS
Definition
Factors Causing Cyanosis
CAISSON DISEASE OR DIVERS PALSY OR DISBARISM OR DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS
Causes
Treatments
Indications of Artificial Respiration
METHODS OF ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION
CHAPTER 7:
Digestive System
INTRODUCTION
Organs of GIT
Functions of GIT
Innervations of GIT
Functions
STRUCTURE
DIGESTION
Digestion in Mouth
Salivary Glands (Fig. 7.2)
Properties of Saliva
Composition of Saliva
Functions of Saliva
Mechanism of Secretion of Saliva
Control of Salivary Secretion
Role of Conditioned Reflex in the Secretion of Saliva
PAVLOV'S EXPERIMENTS OF DOGS
Effects of ANS on Salivary Secretion
Gastric Mucus Membrane
GASTRIC JUICE
Properties of Gastric Juice
Composition of Gastric Juice
FUNCTIONS OF GASTRIC JUICE
Digestive Functions
Digestion of Carbohydrates
Digestion of Fats
Digestion of Proteins
Hemopoitic Functions
Protective Function
Excretory Function
Mechanism of Secretion of Gastric Juice
Actions of HCl
Regulation of Gastric Acid Secretion
Role of Conditioned Reflex on Secretion of Gastric Juice
Use of Pavlov Pouch
SHAM FEEDING
Collection of Gastric Juice
PANCREATIC JUICE
Introduction
Physiologic Anatomy of Pancreas
Structure of Pancreas
Nerve Supply to Pancreas
Properties of Pancreatic Juice
Composition of Pancreatic Juice
FUNCTIONS OF PANCREATIC JUICE
Digestive Functions
Digestion of Lipids
Digestion of Carbohydrates
REGULATION OF PANCREATIC JUICE SECRETION
Nervous Regulation
Hormonal Regulation
Introduction
Properties of Bile
Composition of Liver Bile
Organic Constituents
Inorganic Constituents
BILE SALTS
Entero-hepatic Circulation of Bile Salts (Fig 7.6)
Actions of Bile Salts
Functions of Bile Salts
BILE PIGMENTS
Formation of Bile Pigments
Control of Bile Secretion
Functions of Liver
INTESTINAL JUICE
Properties of Intestinal Juice
Composition of Succus Entericus (intestinal juice)
FUNCTIONS OF INTESTINE JUICE
Digestive Functions
Digestion of Proteins
Digestion of Carbophydrates
Digestion of Fats
Digestion of Nucleoprotiens:
DIGESTION IN LARGE INTESTINE
Parts of Large Intestine
Composition of Large Intestinal Secretion
Organic Substances
Inorganic Substances
Functions of Large Intestine
Movements of Large Intestine
Segmental Contractions
Peristaltic Contractions
Mass Peristalsis
DEGLUTITION
Stages of Deglutition
GIT HORMONES
Gastrin Family Hormones
Secretin Family Hormones
OTHER HORMONES
Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptides (VIP)
Glucagon
Somatostatin
GASTRIC EMPTYING
Receptive Relaxation
Formation of Chyme
Volume of Gastric Contents
Gastric Peristalsis
Chemical Composition of Food
Gastric Acidity
Role of Osmoreceptors
Regulation of Gastric Emptying
Nervous Regulation
Hormonal Regulation
MOVEMENTS OF SMALL INTESTINE
Control of Rhythmic Segmental Contraction
Peristalsis
Characteristic Features
Starling Law of Intestine
Gastroenteric Reflex
Peristaltic Rush
Vermiform Peristaltic Movements
Control of Peristaltic Contractions
Movements of Villi
CHAPTER 8:
Renal System
INTRODUCTION
FUNCTIONS OF KIDNEYS
RENAL CIRCULATION
Peculiarities of Renal Circulation
AUTOREGULATION OF RENAL BLOOD FLOW
NEPHRON
JUXTAGLOMERULAR APPARATUS (JGA) (FIG. 8.5A)
Functions of JGA
Cause of Renin Secretion
MECHANISM OF URINE FORMATION PROCESSES
GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE (GFR)
Definition
Pressures Determining GFR
Net Filtration Pressure
Factors Affecting GFR
Introduction
Components of Concentration of Urine
COUNTER CURRENT MULTIPLIER SYSTEM
In Loop of the Henle
Medullary Hyperosmolarity
Ascending Limb of LH (ALH)
Role of Urea
Role of ADH
Counter Current Exchanger System (Figs 8.8B and C)
Role of Vasa Recta
INTRODUCTION
Renal Regulation of Acid-Base Balance
BUFFER SYSTEM IN THE KIDNEYS
EXCRETION OF H+ IONS IN EXCHANGE TO NA+ IONS
Proximal Convoluted Tubules (PCT)
Distal Convoluted Tubule with the help of Phosphate Buffers
In Distal Convoluted Tubule with the help of Ammonia Buffer System
RENAL FUNCTION TESTS
Introduction
Examination of Urine
Color of Urine
Specific Gravity of Urine
Reaction of Urine
Composition of Urine
Volume of Urine
Microscopic Examination of Urine
Abnormal Constituents of Urine
Examination of Blood
Protein Estimation
Estimation of Urea
Estimation of Uric Acid
Estimation of Creatinine
Examination of Blood and Urine
Clearance Value
MEASUREMENT OF GFR
INULIN CLEARANCE TEST
Method
Measure of Renal Plasma Flow
PAH Clearance Test
Measurement of Renal Blood Flow
SUMMARY OF PCT AND DCT FUNCTIONS
TESTS FOR TUBULAR FUNCTIONS
Urea Clearance
Phenol Sulphonphthalein Clearance Test
Measurement of Water Reabsorption Creatinine Clearance Test
SPECIAL RENAL TESTS
RENAL DISEASES
Introduction
Nerve Supply of Urinary Bladder And Urethra
Filling of Urinary Bladder
MICTURITION REFLEX
Higher Centers for Micturition
Facilitatory Areas of Micturition
APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY
Mechanism of Function of Artificial Kidney/Principle of Artificial Kidney
Dialyzing Fluid
THE CONCENTRATION OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES IN THE DIALYZING FLUID
CHAPTER 9:
Endocrine System
INTRODUCTION
Exposure to Hypothermia
LIST OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS (FIG. 9.1)
TYPES OF HORMONES
NATURE OF HORMONES
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF HORMONES
ANTERIOR PITUITARY
RELATIONSHIP OF HYPOTHALAMUS WITH ANTERIOR PITUITARY (FIGS 9.2 TO 9.4)
RELEASING AND INHIBITORY HORMONES FROM HYPOTHALAMUS
HORMONES OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY
GROWTH HORMONE [GH]
REGULATION OF GH SECRETION
APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY OF GH
Hyperfunctioning of Anterior Pituitary
Characteristic Features
OTHER HORMONES OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY
Introduction
HORMONES OF POSTERIOR PITUITARY
Actions of ADH
Mode of Action of ADH
Mechanism of Action of ADH
Regulation of Secretion of ADH
Oxytocin
Action of Oxytocin on Lactating Breast
Action of Oxytocin on Pregnant Uterus
Applied Physiology
Characteristic Features of Diabetes Insipidus
Deficiency of Oxytocin
The Effect on Pregnant Uterus
The Effect on Breasts
Regulation of Body Fluids
Introduction
Histology
Role of TSH
HORMONES OF THYROID GLAND
Potency of Thyroid Hormones
Causes
SYNTHESIS OF THYROID HORMONES
Steps of T3, and T4 Synthesis
Storage
ACTIONS OF T3 AND T4
REGULATION OR CONTROL OF THYROID HORMONE SECRETION
Laboratory Investigations for Thyroid Functions
APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
Hypothyroidism or Deficiency of Thyroid Hormones
Symptoms
OTHER FORMS OF HYPOTHYROIDISM
Hypothyroidism in Adults
MYXEDEMA
Hyperthyroidism or/Thyrotoxicosis or/Toxic Goiter/Graves Disease/Exophthalmos
Thyroid Adenoma
Characteristics Features of Hyperthyroidism
THYROCALCITONIN
ACTIONS OF THYROCALCITONIN
Applied Physiology
Introduction
Histology
PARATHYROID HORMONE [PTH]
MAIN ACTIONS OF PTH
DETAILS OF THE ACTION
Effects on Bones
Effects on Kidneys
Effects on GIT
Mode of Action of PTH
Regulation of PTH Secretion
APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
Characteristic Features
Signs of Tetany
HYPERCALCEMIA OR OSTEITIS FIBROSA CYSTICA
Development of Adrenal Gland
Histology
HORMONES OF ADRENAL CORTEX
SYNTHESIS OF ADRENAL CORTICOIDS
Synthesis of Adrenal Hormones
REGULATION OF SECRETION OF ALDOSTERONE
FUNCTIONS OF ALDOSTERONE
Cellular Mechanism of Aldosterone Action
Regulation of Glucocorticoid
FUNCTIONS AND ACTIONS OF GLUCOCORTICOIDS (CORTISOL) (FIG. 9.25)
APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY OF ADRENAL CORTEX
Hypoadrenalism
Addison's Disease
Symptoms Due to Deficiency of Aldosterone
Symptoms Due to Lack of Glucocorticoid i.e. Cortisol
Line of Treatment
Hyperaldrenalism (Cushing's disease or Cushing's syndrome) (Figs 9.26 and 9.27)
Line of Treatment
Adrenogenital Syndrome (Figs 9.28 and 9.29)
Hormones of Adrenal Medulla
Concentration of Adrenaline and Nor-adrenaline in Plasma
SYNTHESIS OF CATECHOLAMINES
MODE OF ACTION OF CATECHOLAMINES
ACTIONS OF ADRENALINE AND NOR-ADRENALINE
Regulation of Secretion of Catecholamines
DOPAMINE
INSULIN
ACTIONS OF INSULIN (FIG. 9.30)
Conclusion
APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
Diabetes Mellitus
Signs and Symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus
MALE GONADS [TESTIS]
Source of Secretion of Testosterone
Chemistry of Testosterone
FUNCTIONS OF TESTOSTERONE
CRYPTO-ORCHIDISM
Functions of Testosterone in Adult Life
Muscular Growth
Bone Growth
Regulation of Testosterone Secretion
FEMALE GONAD—OVARIES
Female Sex Hormones
Synthesis of Estrogen
FUNCTIONS OF ESTROGEN
REGULATION OF SECRETION OF ESTROGEN
PROGESTERONE
Source of Secretion
Functions of Progesterone
CHAPTER 10:
Reproductive System
TESTIS
FUNCTIONS OF TESTIS
Gametogenic Function
Spermatogenesis (Fig. 10.2)
Stages of Spermatogenesis
Regulation of Spermatogenesis
Endocrinal Functions of Testis
Testis Secretes Three Androgens
FUNCTIONS OF TESTOSTERONE
In Fetal Life
In Adult Life
Regulation of Testosterone Secretion
Flowchart of Control of Testicular Activity
Biosynthesis of Testosterone
Mode of Action of Testosterone
SEXUAL LIFE IN FEMALES
STRUCTURE OF OVARY (FIG. 10.4)
Medulla
Cortex
OOGENESIS
Secretion of Female Sex Hormones
ESTROGENS
Sources of Secretion
Daily Secretion
Mechanism of Action
Actions of Estrogen
Regulation of Estrogen Secretion
Definition
Duration of Menstrual Cycle
CHANGES DURING MENSTRUAL CYCLE
OVARIAN CHANGES DURING MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Follicular Phase
Ovarian Follicles
Ovulation
MECHANISM AND PROCESS OF OVULATION
TEST OF OVULATION OR DETERMINATION OF OVULATION TIME
Luteal Phase
UTERINE CHANGES IN MENSTRUATION CYCLE
Menorrhagia
PREGNANCY TESTS
Biological Tests
Names of Some Biological Tests
Immunological Test
Steps
Procedure
Advantages of Immunological Tests
INTRODUCTION
Functions of Placenta
Diffusion of O2 and CO2 Through Placental Membrane
ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES
Disadvantages of Oral Contraceptives
INTRA-UTERINE CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICE (PREVENTION OF FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION OF OVUM)
Introduction
Mechanism of Action of IUCD
Disadvantages of IUCD
SURGICAL METHODS (STERILIZATION) [PERMANENT METHODS]
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Parturition
1st stage
2nd stage
3rd stage
MAMMARY GLANDS [BREASTS] AND LACTATION
Development of Breasts (Fig. 10.7)
During Pregnancy
Control of Breast Development
CHAPTER 11:
Central Nervous System
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
Introduction
ORGANIZATION OF HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
NEURON
Structure of Neuron (Figs 11.1A and B)
SUPPORTING CELLS OR NEURALGIA CELLS
Functions of Neuralgia Cells
METABOLIC REQUIREMENTS OF BRAIN
TYPES OF NEURONS
BROAD FUNCTIONS OF CNS
Broad Divisions of CNS
SENSORY DIVISION
MOTOR DIVISION
Definition
ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF SYNAPSES OR MICROSCOPIC DIAGRAM OF SYNAPSES TERMINATING ON NEURON
Types of Synapses (Functional Classification)
Classification of Synapses: (Anatomical)
SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
PROPERTIES OF SYNAPSES
DEFINITION
FUNCTIONS OF RECEPTORS
RECEPTOR POTENTIAL CHANGES TO ACTION POTENTIAL
CLASSIFICATION OF RECEPTORS
A. Mechanical Receptors
B. Nocciceptors
C. Thermo-receptors
D. Electro-magnetic Receptors
E. Chemo-receptors
Pacinian Corpuscle
PROPERTIES OF RECEPTORS
MUSCLE SPINDLE
STRUCTURE OF MUSCLE SPINDLE
INNERVATIONS OF INTRAFUSAL MUSCLE FIBERS
Mechanism of Working of Muscle Spindles
Golgi Tendon Organs (Fig. 11.9)
Functions of Muscle Spindles (Fig. 11.10)
SPINAL CORD
Functions on Spinal Cord
ASCENDING OR SENSORY TRACTS IN SPINAL CORD (FIGS 11.12A AND B)
DESCENDING OR MOTOR TRACTS
POSTERIOR COLUMN SENSORY TRACTS OR TRACT OF GOLL AND TRACT OF BURDACH
Origin
Course
Decussation or Crossing
Course of Internal Arcuate Fibers
Second Relay
Further Course
Termination
Functions of Tracts of Goll and Burdach (Figs 11.13A and B)
Differences Between Tracts of Goll and Burdach
LATERAL SPINOTHALAMIC TRACT OR PAIN PATHWAYS
Origin
Course
Functions of Lateral Spinothalamic Tract (Fig. 11.14)
Anterior Spinothalamic Tract (Fig. 11.15)
Function of Anterior Spinothalamic Tract
ENDOGENEOUS ANALGESIA SYSTEM [OR PAIN RELIEF SYSTEM] (Fig. 11.16)
REFERRED PAIN
Cause
Neural Circuitry Responsible for Referred Pain (Fig. 11.17)
PYRAMIDAL TRACT OR CORTICOSPINAL TRACTS
Origin
Course
COMMON PATHWAY
FUNCTIONS OF PYRAMIDAL TRACTS
LESIONS OF PYRAMIDAL TRACTS
Characteristic Features or Symptoms of Hemiplegia
Stages of Hemiplegia
Stage of Recovery
EXTRA-PYRAMIDAL TRACTS (FIGS 11.19A AND B)
General Functions of Extra-pyramidal Tracts
UPPER MOTOR NEURON (UMN)
LOWER MOTOR NEURON (LMN)
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN UMN AND LMN LESION
HEMISECTION OF SPINAL CORD (BROWN-SEQUARD'S SYNDROME)
REFLEX ACTION
Definition
Verities of Reflexes
Classification of Reflexes
STRETCH REFLEX (MYOTATIC REFLEX) (Fig. 11.21)
NEURAL PATHWAY FOR STRETCH REFLEX
Functions of Stretch Reflex
Operation of Length Servo Mechanism or System of Negative Feedback Device Regulating the Correct Posture
PROPERTIES OR GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLEX ACTION
RETICULAR FORMATION (FIGS 11.24 TO 11.26)
Definition
DIVISIONS OF RETICULAR FORMATION SYSTEMS
Ascending Reticular Activating System (RAS)
Functions of RAS
Descending Reticular System
MUSCLE TONE
ABNORMAL CONDITIONS OF MUSCLE TONE
Organs of Brain Concerned with Motor Functions or Voluntary Muscular Activity
POSTURE AND EQUILIBRIUM
Definition
Postural Regulating Mechanism
Postural Control
Postural Reflexes
Righting Reflexes
DECERABRATE RIGIDITY
The Characteristic Features
Cause of Decerebrate Rigidity
ISCHEMIC RIGIDITY
Names of Basal Ganglia
THEME OF CONNECTIONS OF BASAL GANGLIA
Connection of Basal Ganglia (Figs 11.29 and 11.30)
FUNCTIONS OF BASAL GANGLIA
DISORDERS OR DISEASES OF BASAL GANGLIA
Characteristic Features of Parkinson's Disease
Line of Treatment of Parkinson's Disease
CEREBELLUM
Introduction
Anatomy
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF CEREBELLUM
FUNCTIONS OF CEREBELLUM
CEREBELLAR SYNDROME OR CEREBELLAR DYSFUNCTION
Introduction
Characteristic Features
Clinical Tests
Introduction
Anatomy
FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHALAMUS
A. Vegetative Functions
B. Endocrinal Functions
C. Behavioral Functions
Connections of Thalamus (Fig. 11.39)
Functions of Thalamus
THALAMIC SYNDROME
Cause
Signs and Symptoms (Occur on opposite side of body)
INTRODUCTION
GYRI AND SULCI OF CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
BRODMANN'S AREA
Functions of Lobes of Cerebrum
Functions of Frontal Lobe
Functions of Prefrontal Lobe
Functions of Parietal Lobe
Functions of Occipital Lobe
FUNCTIONS OF CEREBRUM (GENERAL FUNCTIONS)
Prefrontal Lobe Syndrome
Signs and Symptoms
REFLEXES
Verities of Reflexes
Development or Genesis of Conditioned Reflexes
Characteristics of Conditioned Reflexes
Pairing of Unconditioned Reflexes with the Conditioned Reflexes
PAVLOV POUCH
Functions of Limbic System
Experiments were done on Rats
FUNCTIONS OF ANS
Division of ANS
PARA SYMPATHETIC OUTFLOW [CRANIO-SACRAL]
a. Cranial Outflow
b. Sacral Outflow—S2 - S4
SYMPATHETIC OUTFLOW: [THORACO-LUMBER
MAJOR CONTROLLING ORGANS OF ANS
Higher Control
Lower Control
Neurotransmitters at Sympathetic Nerve Endings
Neurotransmitters at Parasympathetic Nerve Ending
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF)
Ventricles in Brain
Composition of CSF
Composition of Human CSF and Plasma
RESPONSES OF SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMP INNERVATIONS ON DIFFERENT PARTS OF BODY
Formation
Absorption
Functions of CSF
Collection of CSF
Purpose of Lumbar Puncture
REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
Introduction
Thermogenesis
Thermolysis
Thermotaxis
THERMOGENESIS OR MECHANISM OF HEAT PRODUCTION
THERMOLYSIS OR MECHANISM OF HEAT LOSS
NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THERMOTAXIS
TEMPERATURE REGULATION IN NEW-BORN
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM (EEG)
Introduction
Recording of EEG
Waves of EEG (Figs 11.49 and 11.50)
Types
Conditions that Alter EEG Pattern
Pathological Conditions with altered EEG (Fig. 11.52)
Significance of EEG
CHAPTER 12:
Special Senses
INTRODUCTION
EYE
Horizontal Section of Eyeball (Fig. 12.1A)
TYPES OF LENSES
VISUAL RECEPTORS
Functions of Rods
Functions of Cones
DUPLICITY THEORY OR THEORY OF DUPLEX
VISUAL PIGMENTS ON RODS
Visual Pigments on Cones
MACULA LUTEA
DEFECTS OF VISION OR ERRORS OF REFRACTION
Myopia: (Short sightedness)
Causes of Myopia
Characteristics
Correction of Myopia
Hypermetropia (long-sightedness)
Causes
Characteristic Features
Correction of Hypermetropia
Presbiopia (Long Sightedness of Advanced or Old Age)
Causes
Cataract (Opacity of lens)
Astigmatism (Figs 12.5A and B)
Causes
PUPILLARY REFLEXES
PATHWAY OF ACCOMMODATION REFLEX
Lesions
COLOR VISION (FIGS 17.7A AND B, FLOWCHART 12.3)
Primary Colors
COLOR BLINDNESS
Definition
Classification of Color Blindness
Test for Color Blindness
AUDITION OR HEARING
Muscles of the Ear
Tympanic Relax
COCHLEA
HEARING RECEPTORS OR ORGAN OF CORTI
MECHANISM OF HEARING (FLOWCHART 12.4)
Functions of Bony Ossicles (Fig. 12.10A)
Role of Internal Ear
VON BEKESY'S: (TRAVELING WAVE THEORY) OR PLACE THEORY
SENSATION OF TASTE
Taste Buds
Structure of Taste Buds
MECHANISM OF TASTE SENSATION
Taste Threshold
Factors Affecting Taste Sensation
OLFACTION [SENSATION OF SMELL]
OLFACTORY RECEPTORS
PHYSIOLOGY OF OLFACTION
Role of Higher Centers
Relation of Odors with the Sex
Role of Pain Fibers
Adaptation
Applied Physiology
INDEX
TOC
Index
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