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Textbook of Biochemistry for Dental/Nursing/Pharmacy Students
MN Chatterjea
1:
Chemistry of Carbohydrates
DEFINITION
CLASSIFICATION
GENERAL PROPERTIES IN REFERENCE TO GLUCOSE
MUTAROTATION
MONOSACCHARIDES OF BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
1. Trioses
2. Tetroses
3. Pentoses
4. Hexoses
1. OSAZONE FORMATION
2. INTERCONVERSION OF SUGARS
3. OXIDATION TO PRODUCE SUGAR ACIDS
4. REDUCTION OF SUGARS TO FORM SUGAR ALCOHOLS
5. ACTION OF ACIDS ON CARBOHYDRATES
6. ACTION WITH ALKALIES
7. REDUCING ACTION OF SUGARS IN ALKALINE SOLUTION
OTHER SUGAR DERIVATIVES OF BIOCHEMICAL IMPORTANCE
1. DEOXY SUGARS
2. AMINO SUGARS (HEXOSAMINES)
3. AMINO SUGAR ACIDS
4. GLYCOSIDES
PROPERTIES OF DISACCHARIDES
1. MALTOSE
2. LACTOSE
3. SUCROSE
HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES (HOMOGLYCANS)
1. STARCH
2. GLYCOGEN
3. INULIN
4. CELLULOSE
5. DEXTRINS
6. DEXTRANS
7. AGAR
Heteropolysaccharides (Heteroglycans)-Mucopolysaccharides (MPS)
Classification
A. ACIDIC SULPHATE FREE MPS
1. HYALURONIC ACID
Hyaluronidase
2. CHONDROITIN
B. SULPHATE CONTAINING ACID MPS
3. HEPARIN
Properties
C. NEUTRAL MPS
2:
Chemistry of Lipids
INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
FATTY ACIDS
Definition
TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS
Straight Chain FA
Examples
ALCOHOLS
1. GLYCEROL
STEROIDS AND STEROLS
FORMS OF CHOLESTEROL
COLOUR REACTIONS OF STEROLS
OTHER STEROLS OF BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
NEUTRAL FATS (TRIGLYCERIDES) OR (TRIACYLGLYCEROL)
IDENTIFICATION OF FATS AND OILS
1. SAPONIFICATION NUMBER
2. REICHERT-MEISSL NUMBER
3. IODINE NUMBER
4. ACETYL NUMBER
PHOSPHOLIPIDS: CHEMISTRY AND FUNCTIONS
PHOSPHATIDYL CHOLINE (LECITHIN)
PHOSPHOLIPASES (DAWSON)
OTHER PHOSPHOLIPIDS OF BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
1. Phosphatidyl Ethanolamine (Cephalins):
2. Phosphatidyl Inositol (Lipositols):
3. Phosphatidyl Serine:
4. Lysophosphatides:
5. PLASMALOGENS:
6. SPHINGOMYELINS (PHOSPHATIDYL SPHINGOSIDES)
CEREBROSIDES (GLYCOSPHINGOSIDES)
AMPHIPATHIC LIPIDS
ORIENTATION OF AMPHIPATHIC LIPIDS
CLASSIFICATION
CHEMISTRY OF PROSTAGLANDINS
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF STRUCTURES
METABOLISM OF PROSTAGLANDINS
COMMON DRUGS THAT INHIBIT PG
PROSTACYCLINS VS THROMBOXANES
LIPOXINS
Types
Formation
Function
3:
Chemistry of Proteins and Amino Acids
INTRODUCTION
COMPOSITION OF PROTEINS
CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE OF AMINO ACIDS
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
Occurrence of Amino Acids
New Amino Acids
PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACIDS
I. Isomerism
II. Amphoteric Nature and Isoelectric pH
III. Physical Properties:
IV. Chemical Properties:
Sequenator
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
I. On Shape and Size
II. On Functional Properties
III. On Solubility and Physical Properties
A. Simple Proteins
B. Conjugated Proteins
C. Derived Proteins
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS
COLOUR REACTIONS OF PROTEINS
PEPTIDE LINKAGE
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF PROTEINS
DENATURATION OF PROTEINS
PURIFICATION OF PROTEINS
4:
Plasma Proteins—Chemistry and Functions
PLASMA PROTEINS
SEPARATION OF PLASMA PROTEINS
Electrophoresis
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUAL PLASMA PROTEINS
A. Albumin
I. α1-Globulins
II. α2-Globulins
III. β-Globulins
IV. γ-Globulins
OTHER PROTEINS OF CLINICAL INTEREST
1. Bence-Jones’ Protein
Variations in Plasma Proteins
PROPERTIES OF INDIVIDUAL IMMUNOGLOBULINS
Structure and Chemistry of Immunoglobulins —Model of Ig Molecule (Fig. 4.3)
POLYCLONAL VS. MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY: HYBRIDOMA
Steps
USES OF MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES
5:
Chemistry of Nucleotides
INTRODUCTION
COMPOSITION
SUGARS
PYRIMIDINE BASES
PURINE BASES
NUCLEOSIDES
NUCLEOTIDES
SYNTHETIC ANALOGUES OF BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE
NUCLEOTIDES/NUCLEOSIDES OF BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
CLASSIFICATION
ADENOSINE TRI-PHOSPHATE (ATP)
CYCLIC NUCLEOTIDES
1. c-AMP
FORMATION AND DEGRADATION OF C-AMP
‘Adenyl Cyclase’ System— Stimulation and Inhibition
2. c-GMP
6:
Chemistry of Nucleic Acids
INTRODUCTION
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
Structure of DNA:
RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)
Structures of RNA
Types of RNA
PRE-mRNA
7:
Chemistry of Enzymes
INTRODUCTION
NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
SPECIFICITY OF ENZYMES
1. STEREOSPECIFICITY
2. REACTION SPECIFICITY
3. SUBSTRATE SPECIFICITY
MECHANISM OF ENZYME ACTION
MODELS OF ENZYME-SUBSTRATE COMPLEX FORMATION
1. TEMPLATE OR LOCK-AND KEY MODEL
2. INDUCED-FIT OR KOSHLAND MODEL:
KINETIC PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTION
1. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
2. EFFECT OF PH
3. EFFECT OF ENZYME CONCENTRATION
4. EFFECT OF PRODUCT CONCENTRATION
5. EFFECT OF SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION
6. EFFECT OF ACTIVATORS AND COENZYMES
7. EFFECT OF MODULATORS AND INHIBITORS
8. EFFECT OF TIME
ENZYME INHIBITION
1. COMPETITIVE INHIBITION
Example of Competitive Inhibition in Biological System—Used Clinically
2. NONCOMPETITIVE INHIBITION (FIG. 7.10)
3. ALLOSTERIC INHIBITION AND ALLOSTERIC ENZYMES:
THERAPEUTIC USES OF ENZYMES:
ENZYMES AND ISOENZYMES OF CLINICAL IMPORTANCE
VALUE OF SERUM ENZYME ASSAY IN CLINICAL PRACTICE
For example:
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ENZYME ASSAYS
VALUE OF ENZYMES IN MALIGNANCIES
VALUE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENT ISOENZYMES
STRUCTURE OF LDH ISOENZYMES:
ATYPICAL CPK ISOENZYMES
(a) Macro-CK (CK-macro):
(b) CK-Mi (Mitochondrial CK-isoenzyme):
REMARKS:
8:
Biological Oxidation
INTRODUCTION
A. Oxidation by Direct Action of Oxygen
B. Oxidation as a Result of Loss of Hydrogen
C. Iron-Sulfur Proteins and Ubiquinones or Coenzyme Q:
D. Cytochromes
REDOX POTENTIAL AND FREE ENERGY
MITOCHONDRIAL ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
COMPLEX I: NADH-COQ REDUCTASE
COMPLEX II: SUCCINATE-COQ REDUCTASE:
COMPLEX III: COQ-CYT.C REDUCTASE:
COMPLEX IV: CYT-C OXIDASE:
FREE ENERGY CHANGES AND SITE OF ATP FORMATION
INHIBITORS OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
Complex II (Succinate dehydrogenase-FAD)
Mitochondrial Shuttle Systems
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
MECHANISM OF OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
Theories:
Experimental Evidences to Support the Chemiosmotic Hypothesis
ATP SYNTHASE
Structure: (Fig. 8.3)
• F0 unit or subcomplex:
• F1 unit or subcomplex:
Mechanism of ATP Synthesis (Boyer's hypothesis):
Rotary or Engine Driving Model:
UNCOUPLERS OF OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
9:
Vitamins
DEFINITION
CLASSIFICATION
VITAMIN A
Chemistry
Dietary Sources
FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN A
Mechanism of Action of Transducin
Conclusion
EFFECT OF EXCESS OF VITAMIN A (HYPERVITAMINOSIS A)
BIOLOGICALLY “ACTIVE” FORM OF VITAMIN D (CALCITRIOL)
DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN D
Hypervitaminosis D
Dietary Sources and Recommended Allowance:
DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN E
DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN K
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
BIOSYNTHESIS
Metabolic Role and Functions
Deficiency Manifestations: Scurvy
Metabolism
OCCURRENCE AND FOOD SOURCES
Metabolic Role and Functions
Deficiency Manifestations: Beri-beri
Daily Requirements
Biological Active Forms
BIOSYNTHESIS
METABOLISM
Metabolic Role
Biological Active Forms
BIOSYNTHESIS
METABOLISM
Occurrence and Food Sources
Metabolic Role and Functions
Deficiency Manifestations: Pellagra
Clinical Features
Daily Requirement
OTHER CLINICAL ASPECTS AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
Biological Active Forms
BIOSYNTHESIS
METABOLISM
Occurrence and Food Sources
Metabolic Role and Functions
DEFICIENCY MANIFESTATIONS
Metabolic Role
Biological Active Form
BIOSYNTHESIS AND METABOLISM:
Metabolic Role and Functions
Metabolic Role and Functions
Biological Active Forms
Folinic Acid
Biosynthesis and Metabolism
Metabolism Role (“One-carbon” Metabolism)
Figlu test-to detect folate deficiency:
Metabolism—Absorption and Excretion
Intrinsic Factor (IF)
Mechanism of Absorption (see Fig. 9.4)
DEFICIENCY MANIFESTATIONS
10:
Chemistry of Haemoglobin
INTRODUCTION
STRUCTURE OF HB
FORMATION OF “HEME-POCKETS”
VARIETIES OF NORMAL HUMAN HAEMOGLOBIN
DERIVATIVES OF HAEMOGLOBIN
COMBINATION OF HAEMOGLOBIN WITH GASES
BIOCHEMICAL TESTS:
ABNORMAL HAEMOGLOBINS AND HAEMOGLOBINOPATHIES
ABNORMAL HAEMOGLOBINS
HAEMOGLOBINOPATHIES
Sickle-Cell Anaemia/and Trait
RELATION WITH OTHER DISEASES
THALASSAEMIAS
11:
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins
MECHANISMS OF ABSORPTION
WILSON AND CRAINE'S HYPOTHESIS OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Absorption of Other Sugars
Factors Influencing Rate of Absorption
PHASES OF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
A. PREPARATORY PHASE
LIPOLYTIC ENZYMES IN PANCREATIC JUICE
B. TRANSPORT PHASE
C. TRANSPORTATION PHASE
ABSORPTION OF RESYNTHESIZED TG AND OTHER PRODUCTS
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF CHOLESTEROL:
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS:
DIGESTION IN MOUTH
DIGESTION IN STOMACH
DIGESTION IN DUODENUM
4. Elastase and Collagenase
DIGESTION IN SMALL INTESTINE
ABSORPTION OF AMINO ACIDS
12:
Metabolism of Carbohydrates
INTRODUCTION
Utilization of Glucose in the Body-General Outline
Utilization of Glucose
REACTIONS OF GLYCOLYTIC PATHWAY
–2ATP
Inhibitors
ENERGY YIELD PER GLUCOSE MOLECULE OXIDATION
A. In Glycolysis: in Presence of O2 (Aerobic Phase)
B. In Glycolysis: in Absence of O2 (Anaerobic Phase)
REGULATIONS OF GLYCOLYSIS
PECULIARITIES OF GLUCOSE OXIDATION BY RB CELLS
FUNCTIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS SHUNT PATHWAY
FORMATION AND FATE OF PYRUVIC ACID
REACTIONS OF CITRIC ACID CYCLE
Stage 1
TCA CYCLE IS CALLED AMPHIBOLIC IN NATURE –WHY?
Bioenergetics
SHUTTLE SYSTEMS
Reactions of Synthetic Pathway
STEPS OF GLYCOGENOLYSIS
Fate of Glucose-1-P
REGULATION OF GLYCOGENOLYSIS
Regulation of Glycogen Metabolism
INHERITED DISORDERS
MAJOR DIFFERENCES WITH EM PATHWAY (TABLE 12.4)
METABOLIC PATHWAYS
Stage II: Non-Oxidative Phase
REGULATION OF HMP SHUNT
METABOLIC SIGNIFICANCE OF HMP SHUNT
METABOLIC PATHWAY
FUNCTIONS OF GLUCURONIC ACID
Substrates for Gluconeogenesis
METABOLIC PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN GLUCONEOGENESIS
A. Main Pathway of Gluconeogenesis
B. Other Special Pathways for Gluconeogenesis
Hormones in Gluconeogenesis
Regulation of Gluconeogenesis
FATES OF LACTIC ACID IN THE BODY
METABOLIC PATHWAY
BIOSYNTHESIS OF LACTOSE
INHERITED DISORDER OF GALACTOSE METABOLISM
RATE OF SUPPLY OF GLUCOSE TO BLOOD
RATE OF REMOVAL OF GLUCOSE FROM BLOOD
1. CONDITION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE IN POST-ABSORPTIVE STATE
What is Post-absorptive State?
2. CONDITION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE IN POSTPRANDIAL STATE
I. AUTOREGULATION (FUNDAMENTAL REGULATORY MECHANISMS)
II. HORMONAL INFLUENCES (ENDOCRINE INFLUENCES) ON CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
BLOOD SUGAR LEVEL AND ITS CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
MECHANISM OF GLYCOSURIA
TYPES OF GLYCOSURIAS
1. Hyperglycaemic Glycosuria
EXPERIMENTAL HYPERGLYCAEMIC GLYCOSURIAS:
2. Renal Glycosurias
CLINICAL TYPES AND CAUSES
2. Secondary
Presentation of Diabetes Mellitus
CLINICAL FEATURES AND BIOCHEMICAL CORRELATIONS
TYPES OF GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST
A. Standard Oral GTT
Procedure
Explanation and Significance of a Normal Curve
13:
Metabolism of Lipids
TRANSPORTATION OF PLASMA LIPIDS
SEPARATION OF PLASMA LIPIDS
METABOLISM
Esterification (Synthesis of TG)
B. Lipolysis (Breakdown of TG):
INFLUENCE OF HORMONES ON ADIPOSE TISSUE
ASSIMILATION OF TG FA BY ADIPOSE TISSUE
BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE
A. β-OXIDATION:
CARNITINE AND ITS ROLE IN FA METABOLISM
Steps of β-Oxidation (Fig. 13.2)
Bio-Energetics of β-Oxidation and its Efficiency
INHERITED DISORDERS
Details of Enzymes
STEPS OF FA SYNTHESIS
SOURCES OF ACETYL-COA AND NADPH
B. ELONGATION OF FATTY ACIDS
CATABOLISM OF LECITHIN (PHOSPHATIDYL CHOLINE)
Steps
KETOACIDOSIS
A. KETONE BODY FORMATION IN LIVER (KETOGENESIS)
Steps
B. UTILIZATION OF KETONE BODIES (KETOLYSIS)
SUSCEPTIBILITY TO KETOSIS
Factors Determining Magnitude of Ketogenesis
ANTIKETOGENIC MECHANISMS
KETOGENIC/ANTIKETOGENIC RATIO IN DIET
BIOSYNTHESIS OF CHOLESTEROL
Steps of Biosynthesis
I. Synthesis of Mavalonate from Acetyl-CoA
II. Formation of Isoprenoid Units: (Fig. 13.9)
Control of Biosynthesis
TRANSPORT OF CHOLESTEROL
CONSIDERATION OF OTHER FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CHOLESTEROL LEVEL IN BLOOD
FATE OF CHOLESTEROL
Types
Conditions which Favour Stone Formation
PATHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS OF SERUM CHOLESTEROL
RELATION OF CHOLESTEROL AND OTHER LIPIDS AS RISK FACTOR IN CORONARY HEART DISEASE (CHD)
FORMATION AND FATE OF ACTIVE ACETATE (ACETYL-COA) (TWO C METABOLISM)
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPOPROTEINS
TYPES OF APOPROTEINS PRESENT IN VARIOUS LIPOPROTEIN FRACTIONS (CHEMISTRY OF APOPROTEINS)
HDL 2
HDL 3
MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF LIPOPROTEINS
CLINICAL DISORDERS ASSOCIATED LIPOPROTEIN METABOLISM
INHERITED DISORDERS
PLASMA LIPOPROTEINS AND ATHEROSCLEROSIS
TYPES OF FATTY LIVER
14:
Metabolism of Proteins and Amino Acids
NITROGEN BALANCE
Lability of Proteins
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
Features of Essential Amino Acids
Note:
DISSIMILATION OF AMINO ACIDS (N-CATABOLISM OF AMINO ACIDS)
TRANSAMINATION
Salient Features:
DEAMINATION
A. Oxidative Deamination
TRANSDEAMINATION (DEAMINATION OF L-GLUTAMIC ACID)
NH3 TRANSPORT
UREA FORMATION (KREBS-HENSELEIT CYCLE)
Characteristic Features:
Reaction 2: Synthesis of Citrulline (Mitochondrial):
Note:
Reaction 3: Synthesis of Argininosuccinate (Cytosolic):
Reaction 4: Cleavage of Arginino-Succinate (Cytosolic):
Reaction 5: Cleavage of Arginine to Ornithine and Urea:
Significance of Urea Cycle
Source of C and N of Urea
Regulation of Urea Synthesis
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF UREA
III. Decreased Levels:
INHERITED DISORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH UREA CYCLE
1. Hyperammonaemia Type I:
2. Hyperammonaemia Type II:
3. Citrullinaemia:
4. Arginino-succinic Aciduria:
Biochemically:
5. Hyperargininaemia:
GLUTAMINE FORMATION AND FUNCTIONS
Synthesis of Glutamine:
Hydrolysis of Glutamine:
Functions of Glutamine:
AMINATION OF α-KETO ACIDS TO FORM AMINO ACIDS
FATE OF C-SKELETONS
Glucose: Nitrogen ratio (G : N ratio):
DECARBOXYLATION REACTIONS AND BIOGENIC AMINES
SOME OF THE IMPORTANT BIOGENIC AMINES
Mechanism of Action and Effects
Blockers of Histamine (Antihistaminics):
Site of Formation
Ranges of Normal Excretion of Polyamines:
METABOLISM OF INDIVIDUAL AMINO ACIDS
A. AROMATIC AMINO ACIDS
2. Metabolic Fate of Tyrosine:
Metabolic Role of Tyrosine
1. Synthesis of Thyroid Hormones
TYPES OF MELANINS
INHERITED DISORDERS
1. Phenyl Ketonuria: Classical type of phenyl ketonuria (PKU):
Urine
Diagnosis:
Clinical features:
Note:
B. SULPHUR-CONTAINING AMINO ACIDS
Structure of S-containing Amino Acids:
Metabolic Fate of L-Methionine
Note:
Fate of End Products
Metabolic Role of Methionine
“ACTIVE” METHIONINE
Metabolic Role of Cysteine
INHERITED DISORDERS OF S-CONTAINING AMINO ACIDS
Diagnosis
Diagnosis
Clinical Features
GLUTATHIONE-CHEMISTRY AND FUNCTIONS
IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS
GLYCINE
METABOLIC FATE
Metabolic Role
SERINE
Metabolic Fate (Fig. 14.14)
Metabolic Role
HISTIDINE
Metabolic Fate
Metabolic Role
TRYPTOPHAN
Metabolic Fate:
Metabolic Role
Clinical Interpretation
SEROTONIN
Synthesis of Serotonin
Functions of Serotonin
Catabolism of Serotonin
Formation of Melatonin from Serotonin
Role of Nitric Oxide in the Body
METABOLISM OF CREATINE
OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION
Note:
Blood and plasma level:
Regulation of Creatine Synthesis
Excretion
ROLE OF CREATINE IN MUSCLES
Estimation of Creatinine
ESTIMATION OF CREATINE
CREATININE COEFFICIENT
Significance
15:
Integration of Metabolism of Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins
INTRODUCTION
INTERCONVERSION BETWEEN THE THREE PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS
REGULATION AND CONTROL OF THE REACTIONS
16:
Metabolism of Purines and Pyrimidines
INTRODUCTION
SOURCES OF C AND N IN PYRIMIDINE RING
METABOLISM OF PYRIMIDINES
METABOLISM OF PURINES
Sources of C and N in purine nucleus:
BIOSYNTHESIS OF PURINES:
STEPS OF BIOSYNTHESIS:
SALVAGE PATHWAYS FOR PURINES AND PYRIMIDINE BASES
A. PURINE SALVAGE PATHWAYS
B. PYRIMIDINE BASE SALVAGE
Regulation of Purine Synthesis
CATABOLISM OF PURINES (FORMATION OF URIC ACID)
Further Catabolism of Uric Acid: Non-primates (Refer reaction in the next page)
URIC ACID METABOLISM AND CLINICAL DISORDERS OF PURINE AND PYRIMIDINE METABOLISM
CLINICAL DISORDERS
17:
Protein Synthesis
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Transcription:
CHARACTERISTICS OF GENETIC CODE
RIBOSOMES
STEPS OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Steps of Activation of Amino Acids
Role of 3’-Poly(A) Tail in Initiation
Steps Involved in Elongation
POLYRIBOSOMES
CHAPERONES: PROTEINS THAT PREVENT FAULTY FOLDING
ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE
INHIBITORS OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
18:
Recombinant DNA Technology
TOOLS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
STAGES
STEPS OF PREPARATION
HOMOPOLYMER TAILING
GENE LIBRARY
DNA Probes
Blotting and Hybridization
ANALYSIS OF DNA, RNA AND PROTEINST
POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR):
PROCEDURE
CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF PCR
APPLICATIONS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY:
19:
Detoxication
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION
XENOBIOTICS
MECHANISM OF DETOXICATION
A. OXIDATION
B. REDUCTION
C. HYDROLYSIS
D. CONJUGATION
SELENIUM POISONING
20:
Free Radicals: Chemistry and Functions
SCAVENGERS OF FREE RADICALS
EFFECT OF ‘FREE’ RADICALS ON BIOMEMBRANES
ANTI-OXIDANTS
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
21:
Bile Pigments: Metabolism
INTRODUCTION
SOURCES OF BILIRUBIN
TRANSPORT OF BILIRUBIN
Alterations of Albumin-Bilirubin Binding and its Biomedical Significance:
Transfer of Bilirubin from Plasma to Liver Cells:
CONJUGATION OF BILIRUBIN WITH D-GLUCURONIC ACID IN LIVER CELLS
Entero-Hepatic Circulation of Bile Pigments:
Clinical Significance of Alteration of Intestinal Flora with Bile Pigments Metabolism:
22:
Hormones: Chemistry and Functions
INTRODUCTION
Similarities with Enzymes:
Differences from Enzymes:
Major hormone secreting glands are:
Classification of Hormones
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF HORMONES
1. Interaction with Nuclear Chromatin:
2. Membrane receptors:
3. Stimulation of Enzyme Synthesis at the Ribosomal Level:
5. c-AMP and Hormone Action
6. Role of polyphosphoinositol and Diacylglycerol in Hormone Action:
REGULATION OF HORMONE SECRETION
A. Neuroendocrinal Control Mechanism:
B. Feedback Control Mechanism:
Pituitary Gland: Anatomical Review
HORMONES OF THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY
Chemistry:
Functions:
Regulation of Growth Hormone Secretion
PITUITARY TROPIC HORMONES
A. Prolactin (PRL) or Leuteotropic Hormone (LTH)
2. Thyrotropic Hormone or Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Control of Secretion:
C. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) or Corticotropin:
D. Pituitary Gonadotropins:
Endorphins and Encephalins:
HORMONE OF MIDDLE LOBE OF PITUITARY
HORMONES OF POSTERIOR PITUITARY LOBE
ABNORMALITIES OF PITUITARY FUNCTION
1. Hyperpituitarism
Hormones Produced:
THYROID HORMONES
Chemistry of Thyroglobulin:
Synthesis of Thyroid Hormones
Recycling of Iodine in the Gland:
Abnormal TBG Level:
Characteristics of T3:
Chemical Hyperthyroidism:
ACTIONS OF THYROID HORMONES
Metabolic Actions
Regulation:
Naturally Occurring Goitrogens:
ABNORMAL PHYSIOLOGY
2. Cretinism:
INTRODUCTION
PARATHORMONE (PTH)
Biosynthesis
ACTIONS OF PTH
Regulation of PTH Release
ABNORMALITIES OF PARATHYROID FUNCTION
Signs:
ACTIONS
Regulation of Secretion
PANCREAS AND ITS HORMONES
Chemistry:
Factors Affecting Secretion of Insulin (Regulation of Secretion)
TRANSPORT AND METABOLISM
INSULIN RECEPTORS
1. Action on Carbohydrate Metabolism
2. Action on Lipid Metabolism
3. Action on Protein Metabolisms
4. Action on Mineral Metabolism
Insulin-Like Growth Factors
INSULIN PREPARATIONS
INSULIN ANALOGUES
1. Short (Fast) acting analogues:
2. Intermediate acting Insulin analogues:
3. Long acting insulin analogues:
Abnormal Physiology
Chemistry:
Synthesis
Note:
Factors Controlling Glucagon Secretion—(Regulation)
1. On Carbohydrate Metabolism:
2. On Lipid Metabolism:
3. On Protein Metabolism:
4. Action on Heart
5. Calorigenic Action:
6. On Mineral Metabolism:
ADRENAL CORTEX AND STEROID HORMONES
Biosynthesis of Glucocorticoids:
Regulation of Glucocorticoids Secretion:
Action of ACTH on Steroidogenesis:
Mechanism of Action:
Catabolism:
Adrenal Androgens
Actions of Glucocorticoids
Mechanism of hyperglycaemia:
Summary:
II. Other Actions
ABNORMAL PHYSIOLOGY OF ADRENAL CORTEX
Types:
Clinical features and biochemical findings:
Steps in Synthesis:
1. Renal Effects of Aldosterone:
Regulation of Aldosterone Secretion
Basic Mechanisms
1. Renin-Angiotensin System:
Action of Renin
ABNORMAL PHYSIOLOGY-ALDOSTERONISM
Diagnosis:
Storage:
Adrenergic Receptors:
Metabolism
Normal Values:
Metabolic Effects:
ABNORMAL PHYSIOLOGY
Laboratory Tests
GONADAL HORMONES
Biosynthesis:
Structure of Testosterone
Structure of immediate precursor Androstenedione
Note:
Plasma Level:
Metabolism:
Note:
Metabolic Actions
Site of Formation:
Biosynthesis
Steps of Synthesis:
Metabolism:
Metabolic Actions
PROGESTERONE
Biosynthesis
Synthetic Analogues
PLACENTAL HORMONES
1. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)
Actions
2. Chorionic Somatomammotropin (Placental Lactogen)
3. Ovarian Steroids
INTRODUCTION
Characteristics of GI Hormones
A. Secretin Family
Actions
Actions
Actions
B. GASTRIN FAMILY
Source and Distribution:
Other Modulating factors:
Release:
Actions:
OTHER GI PEPTIDES
Actions:
Actions:
6. Chymodenin:
Action
23:
Metabolism of Minerals and Trace Elements
INTRODUCTION
Clinical conditions
Metabolism
Absorption and Excretion
Types of Iron Present in Body
Dietary Sources of Iron
Absorption of Iron and factors Regulating Absorption
Mucosal Block Theory
Iron Transport and Utilization
Iron Requirement and Clinical Significane
Copper-Deficiency Manifestations:
Inherited Disorders
Factors Affecting Absorption
Factors Affecting Renal Excretion
Plasma Mg in Diseases
Source:
Absorption and Excretion
Fluoride Toxicity
Metabolic Role and Function of Selenium
24:
Diet and Nutrition: Energy Metabolism
INTRODUCTION
BASAL METABOLISM AND BMR
RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT (RQ)
Value and Significance of Determination of RQ:
Measurement of total heat production:
Procedures:
How to plan a Balanced Diet?
Guidelines for Certain Dietary Food Stuffs
PROTEIN-ENERGY MALNUTRITION (PEM)
What is Malnutrition ?
DIET IN PREGNANCY AND LACTATION
COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF COMMON FOOD STUFFS
25:
Water and Electrolyte Balance and Imbalance
I. DISTRIBUTION OF BODY WATER
II. DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTROLYTES IN THE BODY
Electrolytes Movements In and Out of Cells
I. DEHYDRATION
A. PURE WATER DEPLETION (PRIMARY DEHYDRATION)
B. PURE SALT DEPLETION
C. MIXED WATER AND SALT (SODIUM) DEPLETION
Type of Fluids to Administer:
PATHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS OF WATER AND ELECTROLYTES
II. WATER INTOXICATION
26:
Acid-Base Balance and Imbalance
INTRODUCTION
Mechanism of Action
Acids Produced in the Body
Mechanisms of Regulation of pH:
Physiological Buffer Systems
A. ROLE OF DIFFERENT BUFFER SYSTEM
Inference
Example:
Buffering Action of Proteins
In the lungs:
In tissues:
B. ROLE OF RESPIRATION IN ACID-BASE REGULATION
C. RENAL MECHANISMS FOR REGULATION OF ACID-BASE BALANCE
Kidneys also affect acid-base equilibrium:
1. Bicarbonate Mechanism:
2. Phosphate Mechanisms:
3. Ammonia Mechanism:
ANION GAP
A. ACIDOSIS
Biochemical Characteristics
Causes of Metabolic Acidosis
B. ALKALOSIS
Mechanism:
Other Biochemical Changes and Clinical Manifestations:
Biochemical characteristics:
Causes:
Mechanism:
Biochemical Characteristics:
Causes:
27:
Renal Function Tests
INTRODUCTION
Preliminary Investigations to Renal Function Tests:
PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT
I. GLOMERULAR FILTRATION TESTS
Maximum Clearance:
Standard Clearance:
Interpretation of the Test:
Procedure of the Test:
Procedure of the Test:
II. TESTS FOR RENAL BLOOD FLOW
III. TESTS OF TUBULAR FUNCTION
A. Concentration Tests:
B. Water Dilution/Elimination Test:
C. Tests of Tubular Excretion and Reabsorption
IV. OTHER MISCELLANEOUS TESTS TO ASSESS RENAL FUNCTION
28:
Liver Function Tests
INTRODUCTION
TESTS BASED ON ABNORMALITIES OF BILE PIGMENT METABOLISM
1. VD Bergh Reaction and Serum Bilirubin
1. Glucose Tolerance Test:
2. Galactose Tolerance Test:
Hippuric Acid Test of Quick
FORMATION OF PROTHROMBIN BY LIVER
29:
Mechanism of Action of Drugs
I. PHYSICAL ACTION
II. CHEMICAL ACTIONS
III. ENZYMES
IV. ACTION THROUGH RECEPTORS
Transducer Mechanisms (Signalling mechanisms)
30:
Biochemistry of AIDS
INTRODUCTION
DISCOVERY OF HIV
RETROVIRAL BACKGROUND
VIRION STRUCTURE
GENOME
VIRUS LIFE CYCLE
MODES OF TRANSMISSION
Blood and Blood Products
The Transmission of HIV by Genital Fluids
Transmission from Mother to Child
Transmission by Needle Stick Injury
IMMUNOLOGICAL RESPONSE IN HIV
DIAGNOSIS OF HIV INFECTION
ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY (ART)
HIV VACCINE
An Ideal HIV Vaccine
Barriers to HIV Vaccine Development
HIV Vaccine Concepts
References
INDEX
TOC
Index
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