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Textbook of Biochemistry for Dental/Nursing/Pharmacy Students MN Chatterjea

1:Chemistry of Carbohydrates
- DEFINITION
- CLASSIFICATION
- GENERAL PROPERTIES IN REFERENCE TO GLUCOSE
- MUTAROTATION
- MONOSACCHARIDES OF BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
  - 1. Trioses
  - 2. Tetroses
  - 3. Pentoses
  - 4. Hexoses
- 1. OSAZONE FORMATION
- 2. INTERCONVERSION OF SUGARS
- 3. OXIDATION TO PRODUCE SUGAR ACIDS
- 4. REDUCTION OF SUGARS TO FORM SUGAR ALCOHOLS
- 5. ACTION OF ACIDS ON CARBOHYDRATES
- 6. ACTION WITH ALKALIES
- 7. REDUCING ACTION OF SUGARS IN ALKALINE SOLUTION
- OTHER SUGAR DERIVATIVES OF BIOCHEMICAL IMPORTANCE
- 1. DEOXY SUGARS
- 2. AMINO SUGARS (HEXOSAMINES)
- 3. AMINO SUGAR ACIDS
- 4. GLYCOSIDES
- PROPERTIES OF DISACCHARIDES
- 1. MALTOSE
- 2. LACTOSE
- 3. SUCROSE
- HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES (HOMOGLYCANS)
- 1. STARCH
- 2. GLYCOGEN
- 3. INULIN
- 4. CELLULOSE
- 5. DEXTRINS
- 6. DEXTRANS
- 7. AGAR
  - Heteropolysaccharides (Heteroglycans)-Mucopolysaccharides (MPS)
    - Classification
- A. ACIDIC SULPHATE FREE MPS
- 1. HYALURONIC ACID
  - Hyaluronidase
- 2. CHONDROITIN
- B. SULPHATE CONTAINING ACID MPS
- 3. HEPARIN
  - Properties
- C. NEUTRAL MPS
2:Chemistry of Lipids
- INTRODUCTION
- CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
- FATTY ACIDS
  - Definition
- TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS
  - Straight Chain FA
    - Examples
- ALCOHOLS
- 1. GLYCEROL
- STEROIDS AND STEROLS
- FORMS OF CHOLESTEROL
- COLOUR REACTIONS OF STEROLS
- OTHER STEROLS OF BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
- NEUTRAL FATS (TRIGLYCERIDES) OR (TRIACYLGLYCEROL)
- IDENTIFICATION OF FATS AND OILS
- 1. SAPONIFICATION NUMBER
- 2. REICHERT-MEISSL NUMBER
- 3. IODINE NUMBER
- 4. ACETYL NUMBER
- PHOSPHOLIPIDS: CHEMISTRY AND FUNCTIONS
- PHOSPHATIDYL CHOLINE (LECITHIN)
- PHOSPHOLIPASES (DAWSON)
- OTHER PHOSPHOLIPIDS OF BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
  - 1. Phosphatidyl Ethanolamine (Cephalins):
  - 2. Phosphatidyl Inositol (Lipositols):
  - 3. Phosphatidyl Serine:
  - 4. Lysophosphatides:
- 5. PLASMALOGENS:
- 6. SPHINGOMYELINS (PHOSPHATIDYL SPHINGOSIDES)
- CEREBROSIDES (GLYCOSPHINGOSIDES)
- AMPHIPATHIC LIPIDS
- ORIENTATION OF AMPHIPATHIC LIPIDS
- CLASSIFICATION
- CHEMISTRY OF PROSTAGLANDINS
- CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF STRUCTURES
- METABOLISM OF PROSTAGLANDINS
- COMMON DRUGS THAT INHIBIT PG
- PROSTACYCLINS VS THROMBOXANES
- LIPOXINS
  - Types
  - Formation
  - Function
3:Chemistry of Proteins and Amino Acids
- INTRODUCTION
- COMPOSITION OF PROTEINS
- CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE OF AMINO ACIDS
- ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
  - Occurrence of Amino Acids
  - New Amino Acids
- PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACIDS
- CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
- GENERAL PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS
- COLOUR REACTIONS OF PROTEINS
- PEPTIDE LINKAGE
- STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF PROTEINS
- DENATURATION OF PROTEINS
- PURIFICATION OF PROTEINS
4:Plasma Proteins—Chemistry and Functions
- PLASMA PROTEINS
- SEPARATION OF PLASMA PROTEINS
  - Electrophoresis
- CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUAL PLASMA PROTEINS
- OTHER PROTEINS OF CLINICAL INTEREST
  - 1. Bence-Jones’ Protein
  - Variations in Plasma Proteins
- PROPERTIES OF INDIVIDUAL IMMUNOGLOBULINS
  - Structure and Chemistry of Immunoglobulins —Model of Ig Molecule (Fig. 4.3)
- POLYCLONAL VS. MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY: HYBRIDOMA
  - Steps
- USES OF MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES
5:Chemistry of Nucleotides
- INTRODUCTION
- COMPOSITION
- SUGARS
- PYRIMIDINE BASES
- PURINE BASES
- NUCLEOSIDES
- NUCLEOTIDES
- SYNTHETIC ANALOGUES OF BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE
- NUCLEOTIDES/NUCLEOSIDES OF BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
- CLASSIFICATION
- ADENOSINE TRI-PHOSPHATE (ATP)
- CYCLIC NUCLEOTIDES
  - 1. c-AMP
- FORMATION AND DEGRADATION OF C-AMP
  - ‘Adenyl Cyclase’ System— Stimulation and Inhibition
  - 2. c-GMP
6:Chemistry of Nucleic Acids
- INTRODUCTION
- DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
  - Structure of DNA:
- RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)
7:Chemistry of Enzymes
- INTRODUCTION
- NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
- SPECIFICITY OF ENZYMES
- 1. STEREOSPECIFICITY
- 2. REACTION SPECIFICITY
- 3. SUBSTRATE SPECIFICITY
- MECHANISM OF ENZYME ACTION
- MODELS OF ENZYME-SUBSTRATE COMPLEX FORMATION
- 1. TEMPLATE OR LOCK-AND KEY MODEL
- 2. INDUCED-FIT OR KOSHLAND MODEL:
- KINETIC PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
- FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTION
- 1. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
- 2. EFFECT OF PH
- 3. EFFECT OF ENZYME CONCENTRATION
- 4. EFFECT OF PRODUCT CONCENTRATION
- 5. EFFECT OF SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION
- 6. EFFECT OF ACTIVATORS AND COENZYMES
- 7. EFFECT OF MODULATORS AND INHIBITORS
- 8. EFFECT OF TIME
- ENZYME INHIBITION
- 1. COMPETITIVE INHIBITION
  - Example of Competitive Inhibition in Biological System—Used Clinically
- 2. NONCOMPETITIVE INHIBITION (FIG. 7.10)
- 3. ALLOSTERIC INHIBITION AND ALLOSTERIC ENZYMES:
- THERAPEUTIC USES OF ENZYMES:
- ENZYMES AND ISOENZYMES OF CLINICAL IMPORTANCE
- VALUE OF SERUM ENZYME ASSAY IN CLINICAL PRACTICE
  - For example:
- CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ENZYME ASSAYS
- VALUE OF ENZYMES IN MALIGNANCIES
- VALUE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENT ISOENZYMES
- STRUCTURE OF LDH ISOENZYMES:
- ATYPICAL CPK ISOENZYMES
  - (a) Macro-CK (CK-macro):
  - (b) CK-Mi (Mitochondrial CK-isoenzyme):
- REMARKS:
8:Biological Oxidation
- INTRODUCTION
- REDOX POTENTIAL AND FREE ENERGY
- MITOCHONDRIAL ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
- COMPLEX I: NADH-COQ REDUCTASE
- COMPLEX II: SUCCINATE-COQ REDUCTASE:
- COMPLEX III: COQ-CYT.C REDUCTASE:
- COMPLEX IV: CYT-C OXIDASE:
- FREE ENERGY CHANGES AND SITE OF ATP FORMATION
- INHIBITORS OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
  - Complex II (Succinate dehydrogenase-FAD)
  - Mitochondrial Shuttle Systems
- OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
- MECHANISM OF OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
  - Theories:
  - Experimental Evidences to Support the Chemiosmotic Hypothesis
- ATP SYNTHASE
- UNCOUPLERS OF OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
9:Vitamins
- DEFINITION
- CLASSIFICATION
- VITAMIN A
  - Chemistry
  - Dietary Sources
- FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN A
  - Mechanism of Action of Transducin
  - Conclusion
- EFFECT OF EXCESS OF VITAMIN A (HYPERVITAMINOSIS A)
- BIOLOGICALLY “ACTIVE” FORM OF VITAMIN D (CALCITRIOL)
- DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN D
  - Hypervitaminosis D
  - Dietary Sources and Recommended Allowance:
- DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN E
- DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN K
  - Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
- BIOSYNTHESIS
  - Metabolic Role and Functions
  - Deficiency Manifestations: Scurvy
  - Metabolism
- OCCURRENCE AND FOOD SOURCES
  - Metabolic Role and Functions
  - Deficiency Manifestations: Beri-beri
  - Daily Requirements
    - Biological Active Forms
- BIOSYNTHESIS
- METABOLISM
  - Metabolic Role
  - Biological Active Forms
- BIOSYNTHESIS
- METABOLISM
  - Occurrence and Food Sources
  - Metabolic Role and Functions
  - Deficiency Manifestations: Pellagra
  - Clinical Features
  - Daily Requirement
- OTHER CLINICAL ASPECTS AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
  - Biological Active Forms
- BIOSYNTHESIS
- METABOLISM
  - Occurrence and Food Sources
  - Metabolic Role and Functions
- DEFICIENCY MANIFESTATIONS
  - Metabolic Role
  - Biological Active Form
- BIOSYNTHESIS AND METABOLISM:
  - Metabolic Role and Functions
  - Metabolic Role and Functions
  - Biological Active Forms
  - Folinic Acid
  - Biosynthesis and Metabolism
  - Metabolism Role (“One-carbon” Metabolism)
  - Figlu test-to detect folate deficiency:
  - Metabolism—Absorption and Excretion
  - Intrinsic Factor (IF)
  - Mechanism of Absorption (see Fig. 9.4)
- DEFICIENCY MANIFESTATIONS
10:Chemistry of Haemoglobin
- INTRODUCTION
- STRUCTURE OF HB
- FORMATION OF “HEME-POCKETS”
- VARIETIES OF NORMAL HUMAN HAEMOGLOBIN
- DERIVATIVES OF HAEMOGLOBIN
- COMBINATION OF HAEMOGLOBIN WITH GASES
- BIOCHEMICAL TESTS:
- ABNORMAL HAEMOGLOBINS AND HAEMOGLOBINOPATHIES
- ABNORMAL HAEMOGLOBINS
- HAEMOGLOBINOPATHIES
  - Sickle-Cell Anaemia/and Trait
- RELATION WITH OTHER DISEASES
- THALASSAEMIAS
11:Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins
- MECHANISMS OF ABSORPTION
- WILSON AND CRAINE'S HYPOTHESIS OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT
  - Absorption of Other Sugars
  - Factors Influencing Rate of Absorption
- PHASES OF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
- A. PREPARATORY PHASE
- LIPOLYTIC ENZYMES IN PANCREATIC JUICE
- B. TRANSPORT PHASE
- C. TRANSPORTATION PHASE
- ABSORPTION OF RESYNTHESIZED TG AND OTHER PRODUCTS
- DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF CHOLESTEROL:
- DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS:
- DIGESTION IN MOUTH
- DIGESTION IN STOMACH
- DIGESTION IN DUODENUM
  - 4. Elastase and Collagenase
- DIGESTION IN SMALL INTESTINE
- ABSORPTION OF AMINO ACIDS
12:Metabolism of Carbohydrates
- INTRODUCTION
  - Utilization of Glucose in the Body-General Outline
  - Utilization of Glucose
- REACTIONS OF GLYCOLYTIC PATHWAY
  - –2ATP
  - Inhibitors
- ENERGY YIELD PER GLUCOSE MOLECULE OXIDATION
  - A. In Glycolysis: in Presence of O2 (Aerobic Phase)
  - B. In Glycolysis: in Absence of O2 (Anaerobic Phase)
- REGULATIONS OF GLYCOLYSIS
- PECULIARITIES OF GLUCOSE OXIDATION BY RB CELLS
- FUNCTIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS SHUNT PATHWAY
- FORMATION AND FATE OF PYRUVIC ACID
- REACTIONS OF CITRIC ACID CYCLE
  - Stage 1
- TCA CYCLE IS CALLED AMPHIBOLIC IN NATURE –WHY?
  - Bioenergetics
- SHUTTLE SYSTEMS
  - Reactions of Synthetic Pathway
- STEPS OF GLYCOGENOLYSIS
  - Fate of Glucose-1-P
- REGULATION OF GLYCOGENOLYSIS
  - Regulation of Glycogen Metabolism
- INHERITED DISORDERS
- MAJOR DIFFERENCES WITH EM PATHWAY (TABLE 12.4)
- METABOLIC PATHWAYS
  - Stage II: Non-Oxidative Phase
- REGULATION OF HMP SHUNT
- METABOLIC SIGNIFICANCE OF HMP SHUNT
- METABOLIC PATHWAY
- FUNCTIONS OF GLUCURONIC ACID
  - Substrates for Gluconeogenesis
- METABOLIC PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN GLUCONEOGENESIS
  - A. Main Pathway of Gluconeogenesis
  - B. Other Special Pathways for Gluconeogenesis
  - Hormones in Gluconeogenesis
  - Regulation of Gluconeogenesis
- FATES OF LACTIC ACID IN THE BODY
- METABOLIC PATHWAY
- BIOSYNTHESIS OF LACTOSE
- INHERITED DISORDER OF GALACTOSE METABOLISM
- RATE OF SUPPLY OF GLUCOSE TO BLOOD
- RATE OF REMOVAL OF GLUCOSE FROM BLOOD
- 1. CONDITION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE IN POST-ABSORPTIVE STATE
  - What is Post-absorptive State?
- 2. CONDITION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE IN POSTPRANDIAL STATE
- I. AUTOREGULATION (FUNDAMENTAL REGULATORY MECHANISMS)
- II. HORMONAL INFLUENCES (ENDOCRINE INFLUENCES) ON CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
- BLOOD SUGAR LEVEL AND ITS CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
- MECHANISM OF GLYCOSURIA
- TYPES OF GLYCOSURIAS
  - 1. Hyperglycaemic Glycosuria
- EXPERIMENTAL HYPERGLYCAEMIC GLYCOSURIAS:
  - 2. Renal Glycosurias
- CLINICAL TYPES AND CAUSES
  - 2. Secondary
  - Presentation of Diabetes Mellitus
- CLINICAL FEATURES AND BIOCHEMICAL CORRELATIONS
- TYPES OF GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST
  - A. Standard Oral GTT
    - Procedure
  - Explanation and Significance of a Normal Curve
13:Metabolism of Lipids
- TRANSPORTATION OF PLASMA LIPIDS
- SEPARATION OF PLASMA LIPIDS
- METABOLISM
  - Esterification (Synthesis of TG)
  - B. Lipolysis (Breakdown of TG):
- INFLUENCE OF HORMONES ON ADIPOSE TISSUE
- ASSIMILATION OF TG FA BY ADIPOSE TISSUE
- BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE
- A. β-OXIDATION:
- CARNITINE AND ITS ROLE IN FA METABOLISM
  - Steps of β-Oxidation (Fig. 13.2)
  - Bio-Energetics of β-Oxidation and its Efficiency
- INHERITED DISORDERS
  - Details of Enzymes
- STEPS OF FA SYNTHESIS
- SOURCES OF ACETYL-COA AND NADPH
- B. ELONGATION OF FATTY ACIDS
- CATABOLISM OF LECITHIN (PHOSPHATIDYL CHOLINE)
  - Steps
- KETOACIDOSIS
- A. KETONE BODY FORMATION IN LIVER (KETOGENESIS)
  - Steps
- B. UTILIZATION OF KETONE BODIES (KETOLYSIS)
- SUSCEPTIBILITY TO KETOSIS
  - Factors Determining Magnitude of Ketogenesis
- ANTIKETOGENIC MECHANISMS
- KETOGENIC/ANTIKETOGENIC RATIO IN DIET
- BIOSYNTHESIS OF CHOLESTEROL
  - Steps of Biosynthesis
  - I. Synthesis of Mavalonate from Acetyl-CoA
  - II. Formation of Isoprenoid Units: (Fig. 13.9)
  - Control of Biosynthesis
- TRANSPORT OF CHOLESTEROL
- CONSIDERATION OF OTHER FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CHOLESTEROL LEVEL IN BLOOD
- FATE OF CHOLESTEROL
  - Types
  - Conditions which Favour Stone Formation
- PATHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS OF SERUM CHOLESTEROL
- RELATION OF CHOLESTEROL AND OTHER LIPIDS AS RISK FACTOR IN CORONARY HEART DISEASE (CHD)
- FORMATION AND FATE OF ACTIVE ACETATE (ACETYL-COA) (TWO C METABOLISM)
- CLASSIFICATION OF LIPOPROTEINS
- TYPES OF APOPROTEINS PRESENT IN VARIOUS LIPOPROTEIN FRACTIONS (CHEMISTRY OF APOPROTEINS)
  - HDL 2
  - HDL 3
- MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF LIPOPROTEINS
- CLINICAL DISORDERS ASSOCIATED LIPOPROTEIN METABOLISM
- INHERITED DISORDERS
- PLASMA LIPOPROTEINS AND ATHEROSCLEROSIS
- TYPES OF FATTY LIVER
14:Metabolism of Proteins and Amino Acids
- NITROGEN BALANCE
  - Lability of Proteins
- ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
  - Features of Essential Amino Acids
  - Note:
- DISSIMILATION OF AMINO ACIDS (N-CATABOLISM OF AMINO ACIDS)
- TRANSAMINATION
  - Salient Features:
- DEAMINATION
  - A. Oxidative Deamination
- TRANSDEAMINATION (DEAMINATION OF L-GLUTAMIC ACID)
- NH3 TRANSPORT
- UREA FORMATION (KREBS-HENSELEIT CYCLE)
  - Characteristic Features:
  - Reaction 2: Synthesis of Citrulline (Mitochondrial):
  - Note:
  - Reaction 3: Synthesis of Argininosuccinate (Cytosolic):
  - Reaction 4: Cleavage of Arginino-Succinate (Cytosolic):
  - Reaction 5: Cleavage of Arginine to Ornithine and Urea:
  - Significance of Urea Cycle
  - Source of C and N of Urea
  - Regulation of Urea Synthesis
- CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF UREA
  - III. Decreased Levels:
- INHERITED DISORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH UREA CYCLE
  - 1. Hyperammonaemia Type I:
  - 2. Hyperammonaemia Type II:
  - 3. Citrullinaemia:
  - 4. Arginino-succinic Aciduria:
    - Biochemically:
  - 5. Hyperargininaemia:
- GLUTAMINE FORMATION AND FUNCTIONS
  - Synthesis of Glutamine:
  - Hydrolysis of Glutamine:
  - Functions of Glutamine:
- AMINATION OF α-KETO ACIDS TO FORM AMINO ACIDS
- FATE OF C-SKELETONS
  - Glucose: Nitrogen ratio (G : N ratio):
- DECARBOXYLATION REACTIONS AND BIOGENIC AMINES
- SOME OF THE IMPORTANT BIOGENIC AMINES
  - Mechanism of Action and Effects
  - Blockers of Histamine (Antihistaminics):
  - Site of Formation
  - Ranges of Normal Excretion of Polyamines:
- METABOLISM OF INDIVIDUAL AMINO ACIDS
- A. AROMATIC AMINO ACIDS
  - 2. Metabolic Fate of Tyrosine:
  - Metabolic Role of Tyrosine
  - 1. Synthesis of Thyroid Hormones
- TYPES OF MELANINS
- INHERITED DISORDERS
  - 1. Phenyl Ketonuria: Classical type of phenyl ketonuria (PKU):
  - Urine
    - Diagnosis:
    - Clinical features:
  - Note:
- B. SULPHUR-CONTAINING AMINO ACIDS
  - Structure of S-containing Amino Acids:
  - Metabolic Fate of L-Methionine
  - Note:
  - Fate of End Products
  - Metabolic Role of Methionine
- “ACTIVE” METHIONINE
  - Metabolic Role of Cysteine
- INHERITED DISORDERS OF S-CONTAINING AMINO ACIDS
  - Diagnosis
  - Diagnosis
  - Clinical Features
- GLUTATHIONE-CHEMISTRY AND FUNCTIONS
- IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS
- GLYCINE
- METABOLIC FATE
  - Metabolic Role
- SERINE
  - Metabolic Fate (Fig. 14.14)
  - Metabolic Role
- HISTIDINE
  - Metabolic Fate
  - Metabolic Role
- TRYPTOPHAN
  - Metabolic Fate:
  - Metabolic Role
  - Clinical Interpretation
- SEROTONIN
  - Synthesis of Serotonin
  - Functions of Serotonin
  - Catabolism of Serotonin
  - Formation of Melatonin from Serotonin
  - Role of Nitric Oxide in the Body
- METABOLISM OF CREATINE
  - OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION
  - Note:
  - Blood and plasma level:
  - Regulation of Creatine Synthesis
  - Excretion
- ROLE OF CREATINE IN MUSCLES
  - Estimation of Creatinine
- ESTIMATION OF CREATINE
- CREATININE COEFFICIENT
  - Significance
15:Integration of Metabolism of Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins
- INTRODUCTION
- INTERCONVERSION BETWEEN THE THREE PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS
- REGULATION AND CONTROL OF THE REACTIONS
16:Metabolism of Purines and Pyrimidines
- INTRODUCTION
- SOURCES OF C AND N IN PYRIMIDINE RING
- METABOLISM OF PYRIMIDINES
- METABOLISM OF PURINES
  - Sources of C and N in purine nucleus:
- BIOSYNTHESIS OF PURINES:
- STEPS OF BIOSYNTHESIS:
- SALVAGE PATHWAYS FOR PURINES AND PYRIMIDINE BASES
- A. PURINE SALVAGE PATHWAYS
- B. PYRIMIDINE BASE SALVAGE
  - Regulation of Purine Synthesis
- CATABOLISM OF PURINES (FORMATION OF URIC ACID)
  - Further Catabolism of Uric Acid: Non-primates (Refer reaction in the next page)
- URIC ACID METABOLISM AND CLINICAL DISORDERS OF PURINE AND PYRIMIDINE METABOLISM
- CLINICAL DISORDERS
17:Protein Synthesis
- INTRODUCTION
  - Stages of Transcription:
- CHARACTERISTICS OF GENETIC CODE
- RIBOSOMES
- STEPS OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
- POLYRIBOSOMES
- CHAPERONES: PROTEINS THAT PREVENT FAULTY FOLDING
- ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE
- INHIBITORS OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
18:Recombinant DNA Technology
- TOOLS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
- STAGES
- STEPS OF PREPARATION
- HOMOPOLYMER TAILING
- GENE LIBRARY
  - DNA Probes
  - Blotting and Hybridization
- ANALYSIS OF DNA, RNA AND PROTEINST
- POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR):
- PROCEDURE
- CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF PCR
- APPLICATIONS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY:
19:Detoxication
- INTRODUCTION
- DEFINITION
- XENOBIOTICS
- MECHANISM OF DETOXICATION
- A. OXIDATION
- B. REDUCTION
- C. HYDROLYSIS
- D. CONJUGATION
- SELENIUM POISONING
20:Free Radicals: Chemistry and Functions
- SCAVENGERS OF FREE RADICALS
- EFFECT OF ‘FREE’ RADICALS ON BIOMEMBRANES
- ANTI-OXIDANTS
- CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
21:Bile Pigments: Metabolism
- INTRODUCTION
- SOURCES OF BILIRUBIN
- TRANSPORT OF BILIRUBIN
  - Alterations of Albumin-Bilirubin Binding and its Biomedical Significance:
  - Transfer of Bilirubin from Plasma to Liver Cells:
- CONJUGATION OF BILIRUBIN WITH D-GLUCURONIC ACID IN LIVER CELLS
  - Entero-Hepatic Circulation of Bile Pigments:
  - Clinical Significance of Alteration of Intestinal Flora with Bile Pigments Metabolism:
22:Hormones: Chemistry and Functions
- INTRODUCTION
  - Similarities with Enzymes:
  - Differences from Enzymes:
  - Major hormone secreting glands are:
  - Classification of Hormones
- MECHANISM OF ACTION OF HORMONES
  - 1. Interaction with Nuclear Chromatin:
  - 2. Membrane receptors:
  - 3. Stimulation of Enzyme Synthesis at the Ribosomal Level:
  - 5. c-AMP and Hormone Action
  - 6. Role of polyphosphoinositol and Diacylglycerol in Hormone Action:
- REGULATION OF HORMONE SECRETION
  - A. Neuroendocrinal Control Mechanism:
  - B. Feedback Control Mechanism:
  - Pituitary Gland: Anatomical Review
- HORMONES OF THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY
  - Chemistry:
  - Functions:
  - Regulation of Growth Hormone Secretion
- PITUITARY TROPIC HORMONES
  - A. Prolactin (PRL) or Leuteotropic Hormone (LTH)
  - 2. Thyrotropic Hormone or Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
  - Control of Secretion:
  - C. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) or Corticotropin:
  - D. Pituitary Gonadotropins:
  - Endorphins and Encephalins:
- HORMONE OF MIDDLE LOBE OF PITUITARY
- HORMONES OF POSTERIOR PITUITARY LOBE
- ABNORMALITIES OF PITUITARY FUNCTION
  - 1. Hyperpituitarism
  - Hormones Produced:
- THYROID HORMONES
  - Chemistry of Thyroglobulin:
  - Synthesis of Thyroid Hormones
  - Recycling of Iodine in the Gland:
  - Abnormal TBG Level:
  - Characteristics of T3:
  - Chemical Hyperthyroidism:
- ACTIONS OF THYROID HORMONES
  - Metabolic Actions
  - Regulation:
  - Naturally Occurring Goitrogens:
- ABNORMAL PHYSIOLOGY
  - 2. Cretinism:
- INTRODUCTION
- PARATHORMONE (PTH)
  - Biosynthesis
- ACTIONS OF PTH
  - Regulation of PTH Release
- ABNORMALITIES OF PARATHYROID FUNCTION
  - Signs:
- ACTIONS
  - Regulation of Secretion
- PANCREAS AND ITS HORMONES
  - Chemistry:
  - Factors Affecting Secretion of Insulin (Regulation of Secretion)
- TRANSPORT AND METABOLISM
- INSULIN RECEPTORS
  - 1. Action on Carbohydrate Metabolism
  - 2. Action on Lipid Metabolism
  - 3. Action on Protein Metabolisms
  - 4. Action on Mineral Metabolism
  - Insulin-Like Growth Factors
- INSULIN PREPARATIONS
- INSULIN ANALOGUES
  - 1. Short (Fast) acting analogues:
  - 2. Intermediate acting Insulin analogues:
  - 3. Long acting insulin analogues:
  - Abnormal Physiology
  - Chemistry:
  - Synthesis
  - Note:
  - Factors Controlling Glucagon Secretion—(Regulation)
  - 1. On Carbohydrate Metabolism:
  - 2. On Lipid Metabolism:
  - 3. On Protein Metabolism:
  - 4. Action on Heart
  - 5. Calorigenic Action:
  - 6. On Mineral Metabolism:
- ADRENAL CORTEX AND STEROID HORMONES
  - Biosynthesis of Glucocorticoids:
  - Regulation of Glucocorticoids Secretion:
  - Action of ACTH on Steroidogenesis:
  - Mechanism of Action:
  - Catabolism:
  - Adrenal Androgens
  - Actions of Glucocorticoids
    - Mechanism of hyperglycaemia:
  - Summary:
    - II. Other Actions
- ABNORMAL PHYSIOLOGY OF ADRENAL CORTEX
  - Types:
  - Clinical features and biochemical findings:
    - Steps in Synthesis:
    - 1. Renal Effects of Aldosterone:
  - Regulation of Aldosterone Secretion
  - Basic Mechanisms
  - 1. Renin-Angiotensin System:
    - Action of Renin
- ABNORMAL PHYSIOLOGY-ALDOSTERONISM
  - Diagnosis:
  - Storage:
  - Adrenergic Receptors:
  - Metabolism
  - Normal Values:
  - Metabolic Effects:
- ABNORMAL PHYSIOLOGY
  - Laboratory Tests
- GONADAL HORMONES
  - Biosynthesis:
  - Structure of Testosterone
  - Structure of immediate precursor Androstenedione
  - Note:
  - Plasma Level:
  - Metabolism:
  - Note:
  - Metabolic Actions
  - Site of Formation:
  - Biosynthesis
  - Steps of Synthesis:
  - Metabolism:
  - Metabolic Actions
- PROGESTERONE
  - Biosynthesis
  - Synthetic Analogues
- PLACENTAL HORMONES
  - 1. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)
  - Actions
  - 2. Chorionic Somatomammotropin (Placental Lactogen)
  - 3. Ovarian Steroids
- INTRODUCTION
  - Characteristics of GI Hormones
  - A. Secretin Family
  - Actions
  - Actions
  - Actions
- B. GASTRIN FAMILY
  - Source and Distribution:
  - Other Modulating factors:
  - Release:
  - Actions:
- OTHER GI PEPTIDES
  - Actions:
  - Actions:
  - 6. Chymodenin:
  - Action
23:Metabolism of Minerals and Trace Elements
- INTRODUCTION
24:Diet and Nutrition: Energy Metabolism
- INTRODUCTION
- BASAL METABOLISM AND BMR
- RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT (RQ)
- PROTEIN-ENERGY MALNUTRITION (PEM)
  - What is Malnutrition ?
- DIET IN PREGNANCY AND LACTATION
- COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF COMMON FOOD STUFFS
25:Water and Electrolyte Balance and Imbalance
- I. DISTRIBUTION OF BODY WATER
- II. DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTROLYTES IN THE BODY
  - Electrolytes Movements In and Out of Cells
- I. DEHYDRATION
- A. PURE WATER DEPLETION (PRIMARY DEHYDRATION)
- B. PURE SALT DEPLETION
- C. MIXED WATER AND SALT (SODIUM) DEPLETION
  - Type of Fluids to Administer:
- PATHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS OF WATER AND ELECTROLYTES
- II. WATER INTOXICATION
26:Acid-Base Balance and Imbalance
- INTRODUCTION
- A. ROLE OF DIFFERENT BUFFER SYSTEM
- B. ROLE OF RESPIRATION IN ACID-BASE REGULATION
- C. RENAL MECHANISMS FOR REGULATION OF ACID-BASE BALANCE
- ANION GAP
- A. ACIDOSIS
  - Biochemical Characteristics
  - Causes of Metabolic Acidosis
- B. ALKALOSIS
27:Renal Function Tests
- INTRODUCTION
  - Preliminary Investigations to Renal Function Tests:
- PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT
- I. GLOMERULAR FILTRATION TESTS
- II. TESTS FOR RENAL BLOOD FLOW
- III. TESTS OF TUBULAR FUNCTION
- IV. OTHER MISCELLANEOUS TESTS TO ASSESS RENAL FUNCTION
28:Liver Function Tests
- INTRODUCTION
- TESTS BASED ON ABNORMALITIES OF BILE PIGMENT METABOLISM
- FORMATION OF PROTHROMBIN BY LIVER
29:Mechanism of Action of Drugs
- I. PHYSICAL ACTION
- II. CHEMICAL ACTIONS
- III. ENZYMES
- IV. ACTION THROUGH RECEPTORS
  - Transducer Mechanisms (Signalling mechanisms)
30:Biochemistry of AIDS
- INTRODUCTION
- DISCOVERY OF HIV
- RETROVIRAL BACKGROUND
- VIRION STRUCTURE
- GENOME
- VIRUS LIFE CYCLE
- MODES OF TRANSMISSION
- IMMUNOLOGICAL RESPONSE IN HIV
- DIAGNOSIS OF HIV INFECTION
- ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY (ART)
- HIV VACCINE
References

INDEX

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Index

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Chapter Notes