Epidemiology Made Easy Poornima Tiwari, Shashank Tiwari
INDEX
A
Adenocarcinoma of vagina 159
Association and causation 21
Attack rate 50
B
Bias in epidemiological studies 155
Biological plausibility of the association 29
Blinding 221
double blinding 221
single blinding 221
triple blinding 221
Blonde hair and blue eyes 19
C
Case control study 138
advantages 157
easy of conduct 157
faster results 157
inexpensive due 157
more than one RFs 157
no attrition 157
no ethical problems 158
data analysis 151
determining exposure levels 151
disadvantages 158
information on exposure 147
sources of information on exposure status 148
matching 144
group matching 147
paired matching 147
selection of controls 147
selection of cases 140
sources of cases 141
sources of controls 142
Causative association 24
Chance variation 14
Chi-square (χ2) test 243
special situation 251
steps 245
Coherence of association 30, 42
Cohort studies 161
advantages 179
disadvantages 180
steps 166
data analysis 173
getting data on exposure to risk factor 168
identification of exposure cohort 166
regular follow-up 171
selection of control 169
types 163
combination of retrospective and prospective cohort design 165
concurrent 163
non-concurrent 163
prospective cohort design 165
Community trial 223
Concurrence by chance 18
Consistency of association 28
Coronary heart disease 10
D
Descriptive study 102
steps 102
Design of a randomized clinical trial 217
Design of a randomized controlled trial 233
steps 233
choosing the reference population 233
choosing the study or experimental population 233
data analysis to determine the effect 234
fullow-up 233
intervention to the members of treatment groups 233
random allocation to study and control group 233
Differences between case control and cohort study 183
E
Epidemic 119
types 119
common source epidemics 119
propagated epidemics 119
Epidemic curve 118
Epidemiological studies 87
experimental studies 92
observational studies 89
analytical studies 90
descriptive study 89
usual sequence 93
AIDS 93
Epidemiological techniques 278
compose 278
Epidemiology 2, 213
aims 5
causation of disease 6
community diagnosis 5
data for 7
evaluation 7
implementation 7
planning 7
Evaluation 305
Experimental studies 226
advantages 226
limitations 226
Exposed cohort 186
F
Field trial 222
Formulation of hypothesis 113
H
Hemophilia 22
High risk group 36
I
Incidence 48
Indirect evidence of causation 25
Investigation of epidemic 287
steps 287
analysis of the initial data 290
confirmation of diagnosis 287
confirmation of epidemic existence 288
formulation of early or tentative hypotheses 291
rapid search for cases 289
study of etiological factors 290
total population 289
writing the report 291
L
Longitudinal studies 116
M
Male sex and hemophilia 19
Measurements 45, 46, 57
epidemiology 45
morbidity 46
mortality 57
limitations 57
Measuring disease frequency 47
Migration studies 124
limitation 126
critical point 126
long incubation period 126
Monitoring 298
air quality 298
functioning of a health facility 299
health program 298
intrauterine growth monitoring 298
nutritional status 299
water quality monitoring 298
Mortality rates 58
case fatality rate 66
crude death rate 58
group specific death rates 64
age and sex specific death rates 65
infant mortality rate 64
neonatal mortality rate 64
proportional mortality rate 67
cause 69
specific death rates 62
use of cause 63
standardised rates 71
indirect standardization 72
survival rate 70
N
Non-exposed cohort 186
Non-randomized trials 215
Null hypothesis 15
O
Oral contraceptives 160
P
P value 15
Paired ‘t’ test 255
Person distribution 109
Phases of vaccine trial 224
Place distribution 108
Population-attributable risk 176
Prevalence 51
period prevalence 52
point prevalence 51
Propagated epidemics 122
herd immunity 123
opportunities for contact 123
secondary attack rate 124
Q
Qualitative data 10
Quantitative data 11
R
Randomization 215
Randomized controlled field trial 222
steps 222
Relative risk 33, 38
Reye's syndrome 159
S
Secondary attack rate 50
Significance of incidence and prevalence 53
Smoking and lung carcinoma 20
Sources of bias 156
case control studies 156
Berkesonian bias 156
bias due to a confounding factor 156
bias in obtaining information 156
recall bias 156
selection bias 156
experimental studies 220
evaluation bias 220
observer bias 220
subject variation 220
Specificity of the association 27, 41
Standard error of difference 240
Standardization 265
direct 265
indirect 266
community diagnosis 279
determining risk to individual 281
evaluation of new therapy 281
filling in the gaps in the natural history of a disease 282
identification of syndromes 282
planning and evaluation 280
searching for the causes of a disease 282
Strength of association 26
Surveillance 299
types 301
active surveillance 301
passive surveillance 302
sentinel surveillance 302
T
Temporal association 25
Tests of significance 240
qualitative data 240
quantitative data 252
Thalidomide tragedy 160
Thromboembolic phenomenon 160
Time distribution 107
U
Unpaired ‘t’ test 252
Z
Z test 254
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Chapter Notes

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