Index

Essentials of Medical Physiology K Sembulingam, Prema Sembulingam

SECTION 1: GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY
1:Cell
- INTRODUCTION
- STRUCTURE OF THE CELL
- CELL MEMBRANE
- CYTOPLASM
- ORGANELLES IN CYTOPLASM
- NUCLEUS
  - STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS
  - FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS
- DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
  - STRUCTURE OF DNA
- GENE
  - GENETIC DISORDERS
- RIBONUCLEIC ACID
  - STRUCTURE OF RNA
  - TYPES OF RNA
- GENE EXPRESSION
  - TRANSCRIPTION OF GENETIC CODE
  - TRANSLATION
- GROWTH FACTORS
- CELL DEATH
  - NECROSIS
  - APOPTOSIS
- CELL ADAPTATION
- CELL DEGENERATION
- CELL AGING
- STEM CELLS
  - TYPES OF STEM CELLS
    - 1. Embryonic Stem Cells
    - 2. Adult Stem Cells
  - ADVANTAGES OF STEM CELLS
2:Cell Junctions
- DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
- OCCLUDING JUNCTIONS
  - TIGHT JUNCTION
- COMMUNICATING JUNCTIONS
  - GAP JUNCTION
  - CHEMICAL SYNAPSE
- ANCHORING JUNCTIONS
- CELL ADHESION MOLECULES
  - TYPES OF CELL ADHESION MOLECULES
3:Transport through Cell Membrane
- INTRODUCTION
- BASIC MECHANISM OF TRANSPORT
- PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- SPECIAL TYPES OF PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- SPECIAL TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- MOLECULAR MOTORS
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
4:Homeostasis
- INTRODUCTION
- ROLE OF VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF THE BODY IN HOMEOSTASIS
- COMPONENTS OF HOMEOSTATIC SYSTEM
- MECHANISM OF ACTION OF HOMEOSTATIC SYSTEM
5:Acid–Base Balance
- INTRODUCTION
- HYDROGEN ION AND pH
- DETERMINATION OF ACID–BASE STATUS
- REGULATION OF ACID–BASE BALANCE
- REGULATION OF ACID–BASE BALANCE BY ACID–BASE BUFFER SYSTEM
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – DISTURBANCES OF ACID–BASE STATUS
- CLINICAL EVALUATION OF DISTURBANCES IN ACID–BASE STATUS – ANION GAP
- QUESTIONS IN GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY
  - LONG QUESTIONS
  - SHORT QUESTIONS
SECTION 2: BLOOD AND BODY FLUIDS
6:Body Fluids
- INTRODUCTION
- SIGNIFICANCE OF BODY FLUIDS
- COMPARTMENTS OF BODY FLUIDS – DISTRIBUTION OF BODY FLUIDS
- COMPOSITION OF BODY FLUIDS
  - ORGANIC SUBSTANCES
  - INORGANIC SUBSTANCES
- MEASUREMENT OF BODY FLUID VOLUME
  - INDICATOR DILUTION METHOD
  - MEASUREMENT OF TOTAL BODY WATER
- MEASUREMENT OF EXTRACELLULAR FLUID VOLUME
  - MEASUREMENT OF PLASMA VOLUME
  - MEASUREMENT OF INTERSTITIAL FLUID VOLUME
- MEASUREMENT OF INTRACELLULAR FLUID VOLUME
- CONCENTRATION OF BODY FLUIDS
- MAINTENANCE OF WATER BALANCE
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
  - DEHYDRATION
  - WATER INTOXICATION OR OVERHYDRATION
7:Blood
- INTRODUCTION
- PROPERTIES OF BLOOD
- COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
- FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
8:Plasma Proteins
- INTRODUCTION
- NORMAL VALUES
- ALBUMIN/GLOBULIN RATIO
- SEPARATION OF PLASMA PROTEINS
- PROPERTIES OF PLASMA PROTEINS
- ORIGIN OF PLASMA PROTEINS
  - IN EMBRYO
  - IN ADULTS
- FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA PROTEINS
- PLASMAPHERESIS
- VARIATIONS IN PLASMA PROTEIN LEVEL
9:Red Blood Cells
- INTRODUCTION
- NORMAL VALUE
- MORPHOLOGY OF RED BLOOD CELLS
- PROPERTIES OF RED BLOOD CELLS
- LIFESPAN OF RED BLOOD CELLS
- FATE OF RED BLOOD CELLS
- FUNCTIONS OF RED BLOOD CELLS
- VARIATIONS IN NUMBER OF RED BLOOD CELLS
  - PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATIONS
  - PATHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS
- VARIATIONS IN SIZE OF RED BLOOD CELLS
- VARIATIONS IN SHAPE OF RED BLOOD CELLS
- VARIATIONS IN STRUCTURE OF RED BLOOD CELLS
10:Erythropoiesis
- DEFINITION
- SITE OF ERYTHROPOIESIS
  - IN FETAL LIFE
  - IN NEWBORN BABIES, CHILDREN AND ADULTS
- PROCESS OF ERYTHROPOIESIS
- FACTORS NECESSARY FOR ERYTHROPOIESIS
11:Hemoglobin and Iron Metabolism
- INTRODUCTION
- NORMAL HEMOGLOBIN CONTENT
- FUNCTIONS OF HEMOGLOBIN
  - TRANSPORT OF RESPIRATORY GASES
    - i. Transport of Oxygen
    - ii. Transport of Carbon Dioxide
  - BUFFER ACTION
- STRUCTURE OF HEMOGLOBIN
- TYPES OF NORMAL HEMOGLOBIN
- ABNORMAL HEMOGLOBIN
- ABNORMAL HEMOGLOBIN DERIVATIVES
- SYNTHESIS OF HEMOGLOBIN
- DESTRUCTION OF HEMOGLOBIN
- IRON METABOLISM
12:Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate
- DEFINITION
- DETERMINATION OF ESR
  - WESTERGREN'S METHOD
    - Westergren's Tube
  - WINTROBE'S METHOD
    - Wintrobe's Tube
- NORMAL VALUES OF ESR
- VARIATIONS OF ESR
  - PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATION
  - PATHOLOGICAL VARIATION
- SIGNIFICANCE OF DETERMINING ESR
- FACTORS AFFECTING ESR
13:Packed Cell Volume and Blood Indices
- DEFINITION
- METHOD OF DETERMINATION
- SIGNIFICANCE OF DETERMINING PCV
- NORMAL VALUES OF PCV
- VARIATIONS IN PCV
  - INCREASE IN PCV
  - DECREASE IN PCV
- BLOOD INDICES
- IMPORTANCE OF BLOOD INDICES
- DIFFERENT BLOOD INDICES
- CALCULATION OF BLOOD INDICES
14:Anemia
- INTRODUCTION
- CLASSIFICATION OF ANEMIA
  - MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
  - ETIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
- SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF ANEMIA
15:Hemolysis and Fragility of Red Blood Cells
- DEFINITION
- PROCESS OF HEMOLYSIS
- FRAGILITY TEST
16:White Blood Cells
- INTRODUCTION
- CLASSIFICATION
- MORPHOLOGY OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS
- NORMAL WHITE BLOOD CELL COUNT
- VARIATIONS IN WHITE BLOOD CELL COUNT
  - PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATIONS
  - PATHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS
- LIFESPAN OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS
- PROPERTIES OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS
- FUNCTIONS OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS
- LEUKOPOIESIS
  - STEM CELLS
  - FACTORS NECESSARY FOR LEUKOPOIESIS
    - Colony Stimulating Factors
17:Immunity
- DEFINITION AND TYPES OF IMMUNITY
  - INNATE IMMUNITY OR NONSPECIFIC IMMUNITY
    - Mechanisms of Innate Immunity
  - ACQUIRED IMMUNITY OR SPECIFIC IMMUNITY
    - Types of Acquired Immunity
- DEVELOPMENT AND PROCESSING OF LYMPHOCYTES
  - T LYMPHOCYTES
    - Types of T Lymphocytes
    - Storage of T Lymphocytes
  - B LYMPHOCYTES
    - Types of B Lymphocytes
    - Storage of B Lymphocytes
- ANTIGENS
- DEVELOPMENT OF CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY
- DEVELOPMENT OF HUMORAL IMMUNITY
- NATURAL KILLER CELL
- CYTOKINES
- IMMUNIZATION
  - PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION
    - Passive Natural Immunization
    - Passive Artificial Immunization
  - ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION
- IMMUNE DEFICIENCY DISEASES
  - CONGENITAL IMMUNE DEFICIENCY DISEASES
  - ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY DISEASES
    - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
- AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
  - HUMAN LEUKOCYTE ANTIGEN SYSTEM AND AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
  - COMMON AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
- ALLERGY AND IMMUNOLOGICAL HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS
  - ALLERGENS
    - Common Allergens
  - IMMUNOLOGICAL HYPERSENSITIVE REACTIONS
18:Platelets
- INTRODUCTION
- STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
- NORMAL COUNT AND VARIATIONS
  - PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATIONS
  - PATHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS
- PROPERTIES OF PLATELETS
- FUNCTIONS OF PLATELETS
- ACTIVATORS AND INHIBITORS OF PLATELETS
  - ACTIVATORS OF PLATELETS
  - INHIBITORS OF PLATELETS
- DEVELOPMENT OF PLATELETS
- LIFESPAN AND FATE OF PLATELETS
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – PLATELET DISORDERS
19:Hemostasis
- DEFINITION
- STAGES OF HEMOSTASIS
20:Coagulation of Blood
- DEFINITION
- FACTORS INVOLVED IN BLOOD CLOTTING
- SEQUENCE OF CLOTTING MECHANISM
- BLOOD CLOT
- ANTICLOTTING MECHANISM IN THE BODY
- ANTICOAGULANTS
- PHYSICAL METHODS TO PREVENT BLOOD CLOTTING
  - 1. COLD
  - 2. COLLECTING BLOOD IN A CONTAINER WITH SMOOTH SURFACE
- PROCOAGULANTS
- TESTS FOR CLOTTING
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
  - BLEEDING DISORDERS
  - THROMBOSIS
    - Causes of Thrombosis
    - Complications of Thrombosis
21:Blood Groups
- INTRODUCTION
- ABO BLOOD GROUPS
- Rh FACTOR
- OTHER BLOOD GROUPS
- IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING BLOOD GROUP
22:Blood Transfusion
- INTRODUCTION
  - CONDITIONS WHEN BLOOD TRANSFUSION IS NECESSARY
- PRECAUTIONS
  - PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN BEFORE THE TRANSFUSION OF BLOOD
  - PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHILE TRANSFUSING BLOOD
- TRANSFUSION REACTIONS
- BLOOD SUBSTITUTES
- EXCHANGE TRANSFUSION
  - PROCEDURE
  - CONDITIONS WHICH NEED EXCHANGE TRANSFUSION
- AUTOLOGOUS BLOOD TRANSFUSION
23:Blood Volume
- NORMAL BLOOD VOLUME
- VARIATIONS IN BLOOD VOLUME
  - PHYSIOLOGICALVARIATIONS
  - PATHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS
- MEASUREMENT OF BLOOD VOLUME
  - DIRECT METHOD
  - INDIRECT METHOD
- REGULATION OF BLOOD VOLUME
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
  - HYPERVOLEMIA
  - HYPOVOLEMIA
24:Reticuloendothelial System and Tissue Macrophage
- DEFINITION AND DISTRIBUTION
  - RETICULOENDOTHELIAL SYSTEM OR MACROPHAGE SYSTEM
  - MACROPHAGE
- CLASSIFICATION OF RETICULOENDO THELIAL CELLS
  - FIXED RETICULOENDOTHELIAL CELLS – TISSUE MACROPHAGES
  - WANDERING RETICULOENDOTHELIAL CELLS AND TISSUE MACROPHAGES
    - 1. Free Histiocytes of Blood
    - 2. Free Histiocytes of Solid Tissue
- FUNCTIONS OF RETICULOENDO THELIAL SYSTEM
25:Spleen
- STRUCTURE OF SPLEEN
  - RED PULP
  - WHITE PULP
- FUNCTIONS OF SPLEEN
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
  - SPLENOMEGALY AND HYPERSPLENISM
    - Effects of Splenomegaly
  - HYPOSPLENISM AND ASPLENIA
26:Lymphatic System and Lymph
- LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
- FORMATION OF LYMPH
- COMPOSITION OF LYMPH
- FUNCTIONS OF LYMPH
- FUNCTIONS OF LYMPH NODES
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – SWELLING OF LYMPH NODES
27:Tissue Fluid and Edema
- DEFINITION
- FUNCTIONS OF TISSUE FLUID
- FORMATION OF TISSUE FLUID
  - FILTRATION
    - Starling's Hypothesis
  - REABSORPTION
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – EDEMA
- QUESTIONS IN BLOOD AND BODY FLUIDS
  - LONG QUESTIONS
  - SHORT QUESTIONS
SECTION 3: MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY
28:Classification of Muscles
- DEPENDING UPON STRIATIONS
- DEPENDING UPON THE CONTROL
- DEPENDING UPON THE SITUATION
29:Structure of Skeletal Muscle
- MUSCLE MASS
- MUSCLE FIBER
  - NUCLEI
- MYOFIBRIL
  - MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF A MYOFIBRIL
    - Light Band or ‘I’ Band
    - Dark Band or ‘A’ Band
- SARCOMERE
  - ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF SARCOMERE
    - Actin Filaments
    - Myosin Filaments
- CONTRACTILE ELEMENTS (PROTEINS) OF MUSCLE
- OTHER PROTEINS OF THE MUSCLE
- SARCOTUBULAR SYSTEM
  - STRUCTURES CONSTITUTING THE SARCOTUBULAR SYSTEM
    - ‘T’ Tubules
    - ‘L’ Tubules or Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
  - FUNCTIONS OF SARCOTUBULAR SYSTEM
    - Function of ‘T’ Tubules
    - Function of ‘L’ Tubules
- COMPOSITION OF MUSCLE
30:Properties of Skeletal Muscle
- EXCITABILITY
- CONTRACTILITY
- MUSCLE TONE
31:Changes during Muscular Contraction
- INTRODUCTION
- ELECTRICAL CHANGES DURING MUSCULAR CONTRACTION
- PHYSICAL CHANGES DURING MUSCULAR CONTRACTION
- HISTOLOGICAL CHANGES DURING MUSCULAR CONTRACTION
  - ACTOMYOSIN COMPLEX
  - MOLECULAR BASIS OF MUSCULAR CONTRACTION
- CHEMICAL CHANGES DURING MUSCULAR CONTRACTION
  - LIBERATION OF ENERGY
  - CHANGES IN pH DURING MUSCULAR CONTRACTION
- THERMAL CHANGES DURING MUSCULAR CONTRACTION
32:Neuromuscular Junction
- DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE
  - DEFINITION
  - STRUCTURE
- NEUROMUSCULAR TRANSMISSION
- NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKERS
- DRUGS STIMULATING NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
- MOTOR UNIT
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – DISORDERS OF NEUROMUSCULAR DISEASES
  - 1. MYASTHENIA GRAVIS
  - 2. EATON-LAMBERT SYNDROME
33:Smooth Muscle
- DISTRIBUTION SMOOTH MUSCLE
- FUNCTIONS OF SMOOTH MUSCLE
- STRUCTURE OF SMOOTH MUSCLE
- TYPES OF SMOOTH MUSCLE FIBERS
  - SINGLE UNIT OR VISCERAL SMOOTH MUSCLE FIBERS
    - Distribution of Single Unit Smooth Muscle Fibers
  - MULTIUNIT SMOOTH MUSCLE FIBERS
    - Distribution of Multiunit Smooth Muscle Fibers
- ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY IN SINGLE UNIT SMOOTH MUSCLE
- ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY IN MULTIUNIT SMOOTH MUSCLE
- CONTRACTILE PROCESS IN SMOOTH MUSCLE
  - MOLECULAR BASIS OF SMOOTH MUSCLE CONTRACTION
    - Calcium – Calmodulin Complex
    - Length-Tension Relationship – Plasticity
- NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION IN SMOOTH MUSCLE
- CONTROL OF SMOOTH MUSCLE
  - NERVOUS FACTORS
  - HUMORAL FACTORS
    - Hormones and Neurotransmitters
    - Other Humoral Factors
34:Electromyogram and Disorders of Skeletal Muscle
- DEFINITION
- ELECTROMYOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
- ELECTROMYOGRAM
- DISORDERS OF SKELETAL MUSCLES – MYOPATHY
35:Endurance of Muscle
- STRENGTH OF THE MUSCLE
  - TYPES OF MUSCLE STRENGTH
    - Contractile Strength
    - Holding Strength
- POWER OF THE MUSCLE
- ENDURANCE OF THE MUSCLE
- QUESTIONS IN MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY
  - LONG QUESTIONS
  - SHORT QUESTIONS
SECTION 4: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
36:Introduction to Digestive System
- INTRODUCTION
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- WALL OF GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
- NERVE SUPPLY TO GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
  - INTRINSIC NERVE SUPPLY – ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
    - Auerbach's Plexus
    - Meissner's Nerve Plexus
  - EXTRINSIC NERVE SUPPLY
    - Sympathetic Nerve Fibers
    - Parasympathetic Nerve Fibers
37:Mouth and Salivary Glands
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF MOUTH
- FUNCTIONS OF MOUTH
- SALIVARY GLANDS
- PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF SALIVA
  - PROPERTIES OF SALIVA
  - COMPOSITION OF SALIVA
- FUNCTIONS OF SALIVA
- REGULATION OF SALIVARY SECRETION
- EFFECT OF DRUGS AND CHEMICALS ON SALIVARY SECRETION
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
38:Stomach
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF STOMACH
  - PARTS OF STOMACH
  - STRUCTURE OF STOMACH WALL
- GLANDS OF STOMACH
- FUNCTIONS OF STOMACH
- PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF GASTRIC JUICE
  - PROPERTIES OF GASTRIC JUICE
  - COMPOSITION OF GASTRIC JUICE
- FUNCTIONS OF GASTRIC JUICE
- MECHANISM OF SECRETION OF GASTRIC JUICE
  - SECRETION OF PEPSINOGEN
  - SECRETION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID
    - Factors Stimulating the Secretion of Hydrochloric Acid
    - Factors Inhibiting the Secretion of Hydrochloric Acid
- REGULATION OF GASTRIC SECRETION
- COLLECTION OF GASTRIC JUICE
- GASTRIC ANALYSIS
  - METHODS OF GASTRIC ANALYSIS
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
39:Pancreas
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY AND NERVE SUPPLY OF PANCREAS
  - FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF EXOCRINE PART OF PANCREAS
  - NERVE SUPPLY TO PANCREAS
- PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OFPANCREATIC JUICE
  - PROPERTIES OF PANCREATIC JUICE
  - COMPOSITION OF PANCREATIC JUICE
- FUNCTIONS OF PANCREATIC JUICE
- MECHANISM OF PANCREATIC SECRETION
  - SECRETION OF PANCREATIC ENZYMES
  - SECRETION OF BICARBONATE IONS
- REGULATION OF PANCREATIC SECRETION
- COLLECTION OF PANCREATIC JUICE
  - IN ANIMALS
  - IN HUMAN
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
  - PANCREATITIS
    - 1. Acute Pancreatitis
    - 2. Chronic Pancreatitis
  - STEATORRHEA
    - Causes of Steatorrhea
40:Liver and Gallbladder
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF LIVER AND BILIARY SYSTEM
  - LIVER
  - BILIARY SYSTEM
- BLOOD SUPPLY TO LIVER
- PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF BILE
  - PROPERTIES OF BILE
  - COMPOSITION OF BILE
- SECRETION OF BILE
- STORAGE OF BILE
- BILE SALTS
- BILE PIGMENTS
- FUNCTIONS OF BILE
- FUNCTIONS OF LIVER
- GALLBLADDER
  - FUNCTIONS OF GALLBLADDER
  - FILLING AND EMPTYING OF GALLBLADDER
    - 1. Neural Factor
    - 2. Hormonal Factor
- REGULATION OF BILE SECRETION
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
41:Small Intestine
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY
- INTESTINAL VILLI AND GLANDS OF SMALL INTESTINE
- PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF SUCCUS ENTERICUS
  - PROPERTIES OF SUCCUS ENTERICUS
  - COMPOSITION OF SUCCUS ENTERICUS
- FUNCTIONS OF SUCCUS ENTERICUS
- FUNCTIONS OF SMALL INTESTINE
- REGULATION OF SECRETION OF SUCCUS ENTERICUS
  - NERVOUS REGULATION
  - HORMONAL REGULATION
- METHODS OF COLLECTION OF SUCCUS ENTERICUS
  - IN MAN
  - IN ANIMALS
    - Thiry Loop
    - Thiry-Vella Loop
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
42:Large Intestine
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF LARGE INTESTINE
  - STRUCTURE OF WALL OF LARGE INTESTINE
- SECRETIONS OF LARGE INTESTINE
  - COMPOSITION OF LARGE INTESTINAL JUICE
  - FUNCTIONS OF LARGE INTESTINAL JUICE
    - Neutralization of Acids
    - Lubrication Activity
- FUNCTIONS OF LARGE INTESTINE
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
43:Movements of Gastrointestinal Tract
- MASTICATION
  - MUSCLES AND THE MOVEMENTS OF MASTICATION
  - CONTROL OF MASTICATION
- DEGLUTITION
- MOVEMENTS OF STOMACH
- FILLING AND EMPTYING OF STOMACH
- VOMITING
- MOVEMENTS OF SMALL INTESTINE
- MOVEMENTS OF LARGE INTESTINE
  - MIXING MOVEMENTS – SEGMENTATION CONTRACTIONS
  - PROPULSIVE MOVEMENTS – MASS PERISTALSIS
- DEFECATION
  - DEFECATION REFLEX
    - Act of Defecation
    - Gastrocolic Reflex
  - PATHWAY FOR DEFECATION REFLEX
- EVACUATION OF GASES FROM GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
44:Gastrointestinal Hormones
- INTRODUCTION
- CELLS SECRETING THE HORMONES
- DESCRIPTION OF GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES
45:Digestion, Absorption and Metabolism of Carbohydrates
- CARBOHYDRATES IN DIET
- DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
- ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
- METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES
46:Digestion, Absorption and Metabolism of Proteins
- PROTEINS IN DIET
- DIGESTION OF PROTEINS
- ABSORPTION OF PROTEINS
- METABOLISM OF PROTEINS
47:Digestion, Absorption and Metabolism of Lipids
- LIPIDS IN DIET
  - SATURATED FATS
  - UNSATURATED FATS
- DIGESTION OF LIPIDS
- ABSORPTION OF LIPIDS
- STORAGE OF LIPIDS
- TRANSPORT OF LIPIDS IN BLOOD – LIPOPROTEINS
  - LIPOPROTEINS
    - Functions of Lipoproteins
    - Importance of Lipoproteins
- METABOLISM OF LIPIDS
- LIPID PROFILE
- QUESTIONS IN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
  - LONG QUESTIONS
  - SHORT QUESTIONS
SECTION 5: RENAL PHYSIOLOGY AND SKIN
48:Kidney
- INTRODUCTION
- FUNCTIONS OF KIDNEY
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF KIDNEY
  - DIFFERENT LAYERS OF KIDNEY
  - PARENCHYMA OF KIDNEY
49:Nephron
- INTRODUCTION
- RENAL CORPUSCLE
  - SITUATION OF RENAL CORPUSCLE AND TYPES OF NEPHRON
    - 1. Cortical Nephrons
    - 2. Juxtamedullary Nephrons
  - STRUCTURE OF RENAL CORPUSCLE
- TUBULAR PORTION OF NEPHRON
- COLLECTING DUCT
50:Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
- DEFINITION
- STRUCTURE OF JUXTAGLOMERULAR APPARATUS
- FUNCTIONS OF JUXTAGLOMERULAR APPARATUS
51:Renal Circulation
- INTRODUCTION
- RENAL BLOOD VESSELS
- MEASUREMENT OF RENAL BLOOD FLOW
- REGULATION OF RENAL BLOOD FLOW
  - AUTOREGULATION
- SPECIAL FEATURES OF RENAL CIRCULATION
52:Urine Formation
- INTRODUCTION
- GLOMERULAR FILTRATION
- TUBULAR REABSORPTION
- TUBULAR SECRETION
  - INTRODUCTION
  - SUBSTANCES SECRETED IN DIFFERENT SEGMENTS OF RENAL TUBULES
53:Concentration of Urine
- INTRODUCTION
  - FORMATION OF DILUTE URINE
  - FORMATION OF CONCENTRATED URINE
- MEDULLARY GRADIENT
  - MEDULLARY HYPEROSMOLARITY
  - DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF MEDULLARY GRADIENT
- COUNTERCURRENT MECHANISM
- ROLE OF ADH
- SUMMARY OF URINE CONCENTRATION
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
54:Acidification of Urine and Role of Kidney in Acid-Base Balance
- INTRODUCTION
- SECRETION OF HYDROGEN IONS
  - SODIUM-HYDROGEN ANTIPORT PUMP
  - ATP DRIVEN PROTON PUMP
- REMOVAL OF HYDROGEN IONS AND ACIDIFICATION OF URINE
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
55:Renal Function Tests
- PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF NORMAL URINE
  - PROPERTIES OF URINE
  - COMPOSITION OF URINE
- RENAL FUNCTION TESTS
- EXAMINATION OF BLOOD
- EXAMINATION OF BLOOD AND URINE
56:Renal Failure
- INTRODUCTION
- ACUTE RENAL FAILURE
  - CAUSES
  - FEATURES
- CHRONIC RENAL FAILURE
  - CAUSES
  - FEATURES
57:Micturition
- INTRODUCTION
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF URINARY BLADDER
- NERVE SUPPLY TO URINARY BLADDER AND SPHINCTERS
- FILLING OF URINARY BLADDER
  - PROCESS OF FILLING
  - CYSTOMETROGRAM
- MICTURITION REFLEX
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
58:Dialysis and Artificial Kidney
- DIALYSIS
- ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY
  - CONDITIONS WHEN ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY IS REQUIRED
  - MECHANISM OF FUNCTION OF ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY
- FREQUENCY AND DURATION OF DIALYSIS
- DIALYSATE
- PERITONEAL DIALYSIS
- UREMIA
- COMPLICATIONS OF DIALYSIS
59:Diuretics
- INTRODUCTION
- GENERAL USES OF DIURETICS
- ABUSES AND COMPLICATIONS OF DIURETICS
- TYPES OF DIURETICS
60:Structure of Skin
- INTRODUCTION
- EPIDERMIS
- DERMIS
  - 1. SUPERFICIAL PAPILLARY LAYER
  - 2. RETICULAR LAYER
- APPENDAGES OF SKIN
- COLOR OF THE SKIN
  - 1. PIGMENTATION OF THE SKIN
    - Melanin
  - 2. HEMOGLOBIN IN THE BLOOD
61:Functions of Skin
- FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN
62:Glands of Skin
- SEBACEOUS GLANDS
- SWEAT GLANDS
  - ECCRINE GLANDS
  - APOCRINE GLANDS
63:Body Temperature
- INTRODUCTION
  - HOMEOTHERMIC ANIMALS
  - POIKILOTHERMIC ANIMALS
- BODY TEMPERATURE
- HEAT BALANCE
  - HEAT GAIN OR HEAT PRODUCTION IN THE BODY
  - HEAT LOSS FROM THE BODY
- REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
  - HYPERTHERMIA – FEVER
  - HYPOTHERMIA
- QUESTIONS IN RENAL PHYSIOLOGY AND SKIN
  - LONG QUESTIONS
  - SHORT QUESTIONS
SECTION 6: ENDOCRINOLOGY
64:Introduction to Endocrinology
- INTRODUCTION
- METHODS OF STUDY
65:Hormones
- CHEMISTRY OF HORMONES
- HORMONAL ACTION
66:Pituitary Gland
- INTRODUCTION
- ANTERIOR PITUITARY
- POSTERIOR PITUITARY
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – DISORDERS OF PITUITARY GLAND
67:Thyroid Gland
- INTRODUCTION
- HISTOLOGY OF THYROID GLAND
- HORMONES OF THYROID GLAND
- SYNTHESIS OF THYROID HORMONES
  - STAGES OF SYNTHESIS OF THYROID HORMONES
- STORAGE OF THYROID HORMONES
- RELEASE OF THYROID HORMONES FROM THE THYROID GLAND
  - RATE OF SECRETION
- TRANSPORT OF THYROID HORMONES IN THE BLOOD
  - METABOLISM OF THYROID HORMONES
  - MODE OF ACTION OF THYROID HORMONES
- FUNCTIONS OF THYROID HORMONES
- REGULATION OF SECRETION OF THYROID HORMONES
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – DISORDERS OF THYROID GLAND
- TREATMENT FOR THYROID DISORDERS
  - TREATMENT FOR HYPERTHYROIDISM
    - Surgical Removal
    - Antithyroid Substances
  - TREATMENT FOR HYPOTHYROIDISM
- THYROID FUNCTION TESTS
68:Parathyroid Glands and Physiology of Bone
- INTRODUCTION
- PARATHORMONE
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – DISORDERS OF PARATHYROID GLANDS
- CALCITONIN
  - ACTIONS OF CALCITONIN
    - 1. On Blood Calcium Level
    - 2. On Blood Phosphate Level
  - REGULATION OF CALCITONIN SECRETION
- CALCIUM METABOLISM
- PHOSPHATE METABOLISM
- PHYSIOLOGY OF BONE
69:Endocrine Functions of Pancreas
- ISLETS OF LANGERHANS
- INSULIN
- GLUCAGON
- SOMATOSTATIN
- PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE
- REGULATION OF BLOOD SUGAR LEVEL (BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL)
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
  - HYPOACTIVITY – DIABETES MELLITUS
  - HYPERACTIVITY – HYPERINSULINISM
    - Cause of Hyperinsulinism
    - Signs and Symptoms of Hyperinsulinism
70:Adrenal Cortex
- IMPORTANCE OF ADRENAL GLANDS
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF ADRENAL GLANDS
  - HISTOLOGY OF ADRENAL CORTEX
- HORMONES OF ADRENAL CORTEX
- SYNTHESIS, TRANSPORT AND FATE OF ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONES
- MINERALOCORTICOIDS
- GLUCOCORTICOIDS
- ADRENAL SEX HORMONES
- EXOGENOUS STEROIDS
  - SYNTHETIC STEROIDS
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
71:Adrenal Medulla
- INTRODUCTION
- HORMONES OF ADRENAL MEDULLA
  - PLASMA LEVEL OF CATECHOLAMINES
  - HALF-LIFE OF CATECHOLAMINES
- SYNTHESIS OF CATECHOLAMINES
- METABOLISM OF CATECHOLAMINES
- ACTIONS OF ADRENALINE AND NORADRENALINE
  - MODE OF ACTION OF ADRENALINE AND NORADRENALINE – ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS
  - ACTIONS
- REGULATION OF SECRETION OF ADRENALINE AND NORADRENALINE
- DOPAMINE
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA
72:Endocrine Functions of Other Organs
- PINEAL GLAND
  - SITUATION AND STRUCTURE
  - FUNCTIONS
    - Melatonin
- THYMUS
  - SITUATION
  - FUNCTIONS
    - 1. Processing the T Lymphocytes
    - 2. Endocrine Function of Thymus
- KIDNEYS
- HEART
73:Local Hormones
- INTRODUCTION
- LOCAL HORMONES SYNTHESIZED IN TISSUES
  - PROSTAGLANDINS AND ITS RELATED HORMONES
  - OTHER LOCAL HORMONES SYNTHESIZED IN TISSUES
- LOCAL HORMONES PRODUCED IN BLOOD
  - KININS
- QUESTIONS IN ENDOCRINOLOGY
  - LONG QUESTIONS
  - SHORT QUESTIONS
SECTION 7: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
74:Male Reproductive System
- INTRODUCTION
- MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
  - PRIMARY SEX ORGANS
    - Testis
  - ACCESSORY SEX ORGANS
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF TESTIS
- FUNCTIONS OF TESTIS
- GAMETOGENIC FUNCTIONS OF TESTIS – SPERMATOGENESIS
- ENDOCRINE FUNCTIONS OF TESTIS
- MALE ANDROPAUSE OR CLIMACTERIC
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
75:Seminal Vesicles
- STRUCTURE OF SEMINAL VESICLES
- PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF SEMINAL FLUID
  - PROPERTIES
  - COMPOSITION
- FUNCTIONS OF SEMINAL FLUID
76:Prostate Gland
- STRUCTURE OF PROSTATE GLAND
- PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF PROSTATIC FLUID
  - PROPERTIES
  - COMPOSITION
- FUNCTIONS OF PROSTATIC FLUID
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – ENLARGEMENT OF PROSTATE GLAND
77:Semen
- NATURE OF SEMEN
- PROPERTIES OF SEMEN
- COMPOSITION OF SEMEN
- SEMEN ANALYSIS
  - QUALITIES OF SEMEN REQUIRED FOR FERTILITY
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
78:Female Reproductive System
- FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
- SEXUAL LIFE IN FEMALES
79:Ovary
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF OVARY
  - MEDULLA
  - CORTEX
- OVARIAN HORMONES
80:Menstrual Cycle
- MENSTRUAL CYCLE
- OVARIAN CHANGES DURING MENSTRUAL CYCLE
- UTERINE CHANGES DURING MENSTRUAL CYCLE
- CHANGES IN CERVIX AND VAGINA DURING MENSTRUAL CYCLE
  - CHANGES IN CERVIX DURING MENSTRUAL CYCLE
    - Proliferative Phase
    - Secretory Phase
  - VAGINAL CHANGES DURING MENSTRUAL CYCLE
    - Proliferative Phase
    - Secretory Phase
- REGULATION OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
81:Ovulation
- INTRODUCTION
- PROCESS OF OVULATION
- HORMONAL REGULATION OF OVULATION
- DETERMINATION OF OVULATION TIME
- SIGNIFICANCE OF DETERMINING OVULATION TIME
82:Menopause
- CLIMACTERIC AND MENOPAUSE
- CAUSE FOR MENOPAUSE
- CHANGES DURING MENOPAUSE – POSTMENOPAUSAL SYNDROME
83:Infertility
- DEFINITION
- INFERTILITY IN MALES
  - CAUSES FOR INFERTILITY IN MALES
- INFERTILITY IN FEMALES
  - CAUSES FOR INFERTILITY IN FEMALES
84:Pregnancy and Parturition
- INTRODUCTION
- FERTILIZATION OF THE OVUM
- SEX CHROMOSOMES AND SEX DETERMINATION
  - SEX CHROMOSOMES
  - SEX DETERMINATION
- IMPLANTATION
- DEVELOPMENT OF PLACENTA AND EMBRYO
- MATERNAL CHANGES DURING PREGNANCY
- GESTATION PERIOD
- PARTURITION
85:Placenta
- INTRODUCTION
- FUNCTIONS OF PLACENTA
- FETOPLACENTAL UNIT
  - FUNCTIONS OF FETOPLACENTAL UNIT
86:Pregnancy Tests
- INTRODUCTION
- BIOLOGICAL TESTS
- IMMUNOLOGICAL TESTS
87:Mammary Glands and Lactation
- DEVELOPMENT OF MAMMARY GLANDS
- ROLE OF HORMONES IN GROWTH OF MAMMARY GLANDS
- LACTATION
- BREAST MILK
88:Fertility Control
- INTRODUCTION
- RHYTHM METHOD (SAFE PERIOD)
- MECHANICAL BARRIERS – PREVENTION OF ENTRY OF SPERM INTO UTERUS
- CHEMICAL METHODS
- ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES (PILL METHOD)
- INTRAUTERINE CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICE (IUCD) – PREVENTION OF FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION OF OVUM
  - MECHANISM OF ACTION OF IUCD
  - DISADVANTAGES OF IUCD
- MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY (MTP) – ABORTION
- SURGICAL METHOD (STERILIZATION) – PERMANENT METHOD
  - TUBECTOMY
  - VASECTOMY
- QUESTIONS IN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
  - LONG QUESTIONS
  - SHORT QUESTIONS
SECTION 8: CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
89:Introduction to Cardiovascular System
- CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
- HEART
- ACTIONS OF THE HEART
- BLOOD VESSELS
- DIVISIONS OF CIRCULATION
  - SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
  - PULMONARY CIRCULATION
90:Properties of Cardiac Muscle
- EXCITABILITY
- RHYTHMICITY
- CONDUCTIVITY
  - CONDUCTIVE SYSTEM IN HUMAN HEART
  - VELOCITY OF IMPULSES AT DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE CONDUCTIVE SYSTEM
- CONTRACTILITY
91:Cardiac Cycle
- DEFINITION
- DIVISIONS OF CARDIAC CYCLE
- SUBDIVISIONS AND DURATION OF CARDIAC CYCLE
  - SYSTOLE
  - DIASTOLE
- DESCRIPTION OF EVENTS OF CARDIAC CYCLE
- INTRA-ATRIAL PRESSURE CHANGES DURING CARDIAC CYCLE
- INTRAVENTRICULAR PRESSURE CHANGES DURING CARDIAC CYCLE
- AORTIC PRESSURE CHANGES DURING CARDIAC CYCLE
- VENTRICULAR VOLUME CHANGES DURING CARDIAC CYCLE
92:Heart Sounds
- INTRODUCTION
  - DIFFERENT HEART SOUNDS
  - IMPORTANCE OF HEART SOUNDS
- DESCRIPTION OF HEART SOUNDS
- TRIPLE AND QUADRUPLE HEART SOUNDS
  - TRIPLE HEART SOUND OR GALLOP RHYTHM
    - Conditions when Triple Heart Sound is Produced
  - QUADRUPLE HEART SOUND
    - Conditions when Quadruple Heart Sound is Produced
    - Summation Gallop
- METHODS OF STUDY OF HEART SOUNDS
93:Cardiac Murmur
- INTRODUCTION
- CLASSIFICATION OF MURMUR
94:Electrocardiogram (ECG)
- DEFINITIONS
- USES OF ECG
- ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHIC (ECG) GRID
- ECG LEADS
  - BIPOLAR LEADS
  - UNIPOLAR LEADS
    - 1. Unipolar Limb Leads
    - 2. Unipolar Chest Leads
- WAVES OF NORMAL ELECTROCARDIOGRAM
- INTERVALS AND SEGMENTS OF ECG
95:Vector
- INTRODUCTION
- INSTANTANEOUS MEAN VECTOR
- DEGREE OF INSTANTANEOUS MEAN VECTOR
  - DEGREE OF INSTANTANEOUS MEAN VECTOR AT DIFFERENT LIMB LEADS
- CALCULATED VECTOR OR MEAN QRS VECTOR
  - CALCULATION OF MEAN QRS VECTOR
- VECTORAL ANALYSIS
- VECTOR CARDIOGRAM
96:Arrhythmia
- DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARRHYTHMIA
- NORMOTOPIC ARRHYTHMIA
- ECTOPIC ARRHYTHMIA
- ABNORMAL PACEMAKER
- ARTIFICIAL PACEMAKER
- CURRENT OF INJURY
97:Effect of Changes in Electrolyte Concentration on Heart
- INTRODUCTION
- EFFECT OF CHANGES IN SODIUM ION CONCENTRATION
- EFFECT OF CHANGES IN POTASSIUM ION CONCENTRATION
  - EFFECT OF HYPERKALEMIA
  - EFFECT OF HYPOKALEMIA
- EFFECT OF CHANGES IN CALCIUM ION CONCENTRATION
  - EFFECTS OF HYPERCALCEMIA
    - Calcium Rigor
  - EFFECTS OF HYPOCALCEMIA
    - Experimental Evidences
98:Cardiac Output
- INTRODUCTION
- DEFINITIONS AND NORMAL VALUES
- EJECTION FRACTION
- CARDIAC RESERVE
- VARIATIONS IN CARDIAC OUTPUT
  - PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATIONS
  - PATHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS
    - Increase in Cardiac Output
    - Decrease in Cardiac Output
- DISTRIBUTION OF CARDIAC OUTPUT
- FACTORS MAINTAINING CARDIAC OUTPUT
- MEASUREMENT OF CARDIAC OUTPUT
  - MEASUREMENT OF CARDIAC OUTPUT BY DIRECT METHODS
  - MEASUREMENT OF CARDIAC OUTPUT BY INDIRECT METHODS
- CARDIAC CATHETERIZATION
99:Heart–Lung Preparation
- INTRODUCTION
- PROCEDURE
- USES OF HEART–LUNG PREPARATION
100:Cardiac Function Curves
- INTRODUCTION
- CARDIAC OUTPUT CURVES
- VENOUS RETURN CURVES
- ANALYSIS OF CARDIAC FUNCTION CURVES
  - COUPLING OF CARDIAC AND VASCULAR FUNCTIONS
101:Regulation of Heart Rate
- INTRODUCTION
- HEART RATE
- REGULATION OF HEART RATE
- VASOMOTOR CENTER – CARDIAC CENTER
- MOTOR (EFFERENT) NERVE FIBERS TO HEART
  - PARASYMPATHETIC NERVE FIBERS
  - SYMPATHETIC NERVE FIBERS
- SENSORY (AFFERENT) NERVE FIBERS FROM HEART
- FACTORS AFFECTING VASOMOTOR CENTER – REGULATION OF VAGAL TONE
102:Hemodynamics
- INTRODUCTION
- MEAN VOLUME OF BLOOD FLOW
- HAGEN-POISEUILLE EQUATION
- WINDKESSEL EFFECT
- VELOCITY OF BLOOD FLOW
- CIRCULATION TIME
- LOCAL REGULATION OF BLOOD FLOW – AUTOREGULATION
103:Arterial Blood Pressure
- DEFINITIONS AND NORMAL VALUES
- VARIATIONS
  - PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATIONS
  - PATHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS
- DETERMINANTS OF ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE – FACTORS MAINTAINING ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE
  - CENTRAL FACTORS
    - 1. Cardiac Output
    - 2. Heart Rate
  - PERIPHERAL FACTORS
- REGULATION OF ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE
- NERVOUS MECHANISM FOR REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE – SHORT TERM REGULATION
- RENAL MECHANISM FOR REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE – LONG TERM REGULATION
  - BY REGULATION OF EXTRACELLULAR FLUID VOLUME
  - THROUGH RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN MECHANISM
    - Actions of Angiotensin II
    - Actions of Angiotensin III and Angiotensin IV
- HORMONAL MECHANISM FOR REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE
  - HORMONES
- LOCAL MECHANISM FOR REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE
  - LOCAL VASOCONSTRICTORS
  - LOCAL VASODILATORS
    - Vasodilators of Metabolic Origin
    - Vasodilators of Endothelial Origin
- MEASUREMENT OF ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE
  - DIRECT METHOD
  - INDIRECT METHOD
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
  - HYPERTENSION
  - HYPOTENSION
    - Definition
    - Types
104:Venous Pressure
- DEFINITION AND NORMAL VALUES
  - VENOUS PRESSURE IN THE EXTREMITIES OF THE BODY
  - VENOUS PRESSURE IN CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL VEINS
- VARIATIONS OF VENOUS PRESSURE
- MEASUREMENT OF VENOUS PRESSURE
  - DIRECT METHOD
  - INDIRECT METHOD
- FACTORS REGULATING VENOUS PRESSURE
- EFFECT OF RESPIRATION ON VENOUS PRESSURE
  - VALSALVA MANEUVER OR VALSALVA EXPERIMENT
    - Uses of Valsalva Maneuver
  - MÜELLER'S MANEUVER OR MÜELLER'S EXPERIMENT
    - Uses of Müeller's Maneuver
105:Capillary Pressure
- INTRODUCTION
- REGIONAL VARIATIONS
- MEASUREMENT
- REGULATION
- CAPILLARY ONCOTIC PRESSURE
106:Arterial Pulse
- INTRODUCTION
- TRANSMISSION OF PULSE
  - VELOCITY OF TRANSMISSION OF PULSE
  - DELAY IN THE TRANSMISSION OF PULSE
- METHODS OF RECORDING ARTERIAL PULSE
- INTERPRETATION OF ARTERIAL PULSE TRACING
- PULSE POINTS
- EXAMINATION OF RADIAL PULSE
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – ABNORMAL PULSE
107:Venous Pulse
- INTRODUCTION
- SIGNIFICANCE
- EXAMINATION OF VENOUS PULSE
- METHODS TO RECORD VENOUS PULSE
- RECORDING OF VENOUS PULSE – JUGULAR VENOUS PULSE TRACING
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – ABNORMAL VENOUS PULSE
108:Coronary Circulation
- DISTRIBUTION OF CORONARY BLOOD VESSELS
- CORONARY BLOOD FLOW AND ITS MEASUREMENT
  - NORMAL CORONARY BLOOD FLOW
  - MEASUREMENT OF CORONARY BLOOD FLOW
    - Direct Method
    - Indirect Method
- PHASIC CHANGES IN CORONARY BLOOD FLOW
  - ROLE OF LEFT VENTRICLE IN PHASIC CHANGES
  - ROLE OF RIGHT VENTRICLE IN PHASIC CHANGES
- FACTORS REGULATING CORONARY BLOOD FLOW
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE
109:Cerebral Circulation
- INTRODUCTION
- CEREBRAL VESSELS AND NORMAL CEREBRAL BLOOD FLOW
- MEASUREMENT OF CEREBRAL BLOOD FLOW
- REGULATION OF CEREBRAL BLOOD FLOW
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – STROKE
110:Splanchnic Circulation
- INTRODUCTION
- MESENTERIC CIRCULATION
  - DISTRIBUTION OF BLOOD FLOW
  - REGULATION OF MESENTERIC BLOOD FLOW
- SPLENIC CIRCULATION
- HEPATIC CIRCULATION
111:Capillary Circulation
- INTRODUCTION
- STRUCTURE OF CAPILLARIES
  - ENDOTHELIAL CELLS
  - PERICYTES
- PATTERN OF CAPILLARY SYSTEM
- PECULIARITIES OF CAPILLARY BLOOD FLOW
- FUNCTIONS OF CAPILLARIES
- FACTORS CONTROLLING CAPILLARY CIRCULATION
  - NERVOUS FACTORS
  - CHEMICAL FACTORS
112:Circulation through Skeletal Muscle
- INTRODUCTION
- FACTORS REGULATING BLOOD FLOW TO SKELETAL MUSCLE
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – VARICOSE VEINS
113:Cutaneous Circulation
- ARCHITECTURE OF CUTANEOUS BLOOD VESSELS
- FUNCTIONS OF CUTANEOUS CIRCULATION
- NORMAL BLOOD FLOW TO SKIN
- REGULATION OF CUTANEOUS BLOOD FLOW
- VASCULAR RESPONSES OF SKIN TO MECHANICAL STIMULI
  - WHITE REACTION
  - LEWIS TRIPLE RESPONSE
114:Fetal Circulation and Respiration
- INTRODUCTION
- BLOOD VESSELS IN FETUS
- FETAL LUNGS
- CHANGES IN CIRCULATION AND RESPIRATION AFTER BIRTH – NEONATAL CIRCULATION AND RESPIRATION
115:Hemorrhage
- DEFINITION
- TYPES AND CAUSES OF HEMORRHAGE
- EFFECTS OF HEMORRHAGE
  - IMMEDIATE COMPENSATORY EFFECTS OF HEMORRHAGE
  - DELAYED COMPENSATORY EFFECTS OF HEMORRHAGE
116:Circulatory Shock and Heart Failure
- DEFINITION
- MANIFESTATIONS OF CIRCULATORY SHOCK
- STAGES OF CIRCULATORY SHOCK
- TYPES AND CAUSES OF CIRCULATORY SHOCK
- TREATMENT FOR CIRCULATORY SHOCK
- HEART FAILURE
117:Cardiovascular Adjustments during Exercise
- INTRODUCTION
- TYPES OF EXERCISE
  - DYNAMIC EXERCISE
  - STATIC EXERCISE
- AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC EXERCISES
- SEVERITY OF EXERCISE
- EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
- QUESTIONS IN CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
  - LONG QUESTIONS
  - SHORT QUESTIONS
SECTION 9: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AND ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY
118:Physiological Anatomy of Respiratory Tract
- INTRODUCTION
  - TYPES OF RESPIRATION
  - PHASES OF RESPIRATION
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF RESPIRATORY TRACT
- RESPIRATORY UNIT
  - STRUCTURE OF RESPIRATORY UNIT
    - Alveolar Cells or Pneumocytes
  - RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE
- NONRESPIRATORY FUNCTIONS OF RESPIRATORY TRACT
- RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE REFLEXES
119:Pulmonary Circulation
- PULMONARY BLOOD VESSELS
  - PULMONARY ARTERY
  - BRONCHIAL ARTERY
    - Physiological Shunt
- CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF PULMONARY BLOOD VESSELS
- PULMONARY BLOOD FLOW
  - PULMONARY BLOOD PRESSURE
    - Pulmonary Arterial Pressure
    - Pulmonary Capillary Pressure
- MEASUREMENT OF PULMONARY BLOOD FLOW
- REGULATION OF PULMONARY BLOOD FLOW
120:Mechanics of Respiration
- RESPIRATORY MOVEMENTS
- RESPIRATORY PRESSURES
  - INTRAPLEURAL PRESSURE
  - INTRA-ALVEOLAR PRESSURE
- COMPLIANCE
- WORK OF BREATHING
  - WORK DONE BY RESPIRATORY MUSCLES
  - UTILIZATION OF ENERGY
121:Pulmonary Function Tests
- INTRODUCTION
- LUNG CAPACITIES
- MEASUREMENT OF LUNG VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES
- MEASUREMENT OF FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY AND RESIDUAL VOLUME
- VITAL CAPACITY
- FORCED EXPIRATORY VOLUME (FEV) OR TIMED VITAL CAPACITY
- RESPIRATORY MINUTE VOLUME (RMV)
- MAXIMUM BREATHING CAPACITY (MBC) OR MAXIMUM VENTILATION VOLUME (MVV)
- PEAK EXPIRATORY FLOW RATE (PEFR)
- RESTRICTIVE AND OBSTRUCTIVE RESPIRATORY DISEASES
  - RESTRICTIVE RESPIRATORY DISEASE
  - OBSTRUCTIVE RESPIRATORY DISEASE
122:Ventilation
- PULMONARY VENTILATION
  - DEFINITION
  - NORMAL VALUE AND CALCULATION
- ALVEOLAR VENTILATION
  - DEFINITION
  - NORMAL VALUE AND CALCULATION
    - Normal Value
    - Calculation
- DEAD SPACE
- VENTILATION – PERFUSION RATIO
123:Inspired Air, Alveolar Air and Expired Air
- INSPIRED AIR
  - DEFINITION
  - COMPOSITION
- ALVEOLAR AIR
- EXPIRED AIR
124:Exchange of Respiratory Gases
- EXCHANGE OF RESPIRATORY GASES IN LUNGS
- EXCHANGE OF GASES AT TISSUE LEVEL
  - DIFFUSION OF OXYGEN FROM BLOOD INTO THE TISSUES
  - DIFFUSION OF CARBON DIOXIDE FROM TISSUES INTO THE BLOOD
- RESPIRATORY EXCHANGE RATIO
  - DEFINITION
  - NORMAL VALUES
- RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT
  - DEFINITION
  - NORMAL VALUE
125:Transport of Respiratory Gases
- TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN
- TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE
126:Regulation of Respiration
- INTRODUCTION
- NERVOUS MECHANISM
- CHEMICAL MECHANISM
  - CENTRAL CHEMORECEPTORS
    - Situation
    - Mechanism of Action
  - PERIPHERAL CHEMORECEPTORS
    - Mechanism of Action
127:Disturbances of Respiration
- INTRODUCTION
- APNEA
  - DEFINITION
  - APNEA TIME
  - CONDITIONS WHEN APNEA OCCURS
  - CLINICAL CLASSIFICATION OF APNEA
- HYPERVENTILATION
  - DEFINITION
  - CONDITIONS WHEN HYPERVENTILATION OCCURS
  - EFFECTS OF HYPERVENTILATION
- HYPOVENTILATION
  - DEFINITION
  - CONDITIONS WHEN HYPOVENTILATION OCCURS
  - EFFECTS OF HYPOVENTILATION
- HYPOXIA
  - DEFINITION
  - CLASSIFICATION AND CAUSES OF HYPOXIA
  - EFFECTS OF HYPOXIA
    - Immediate Effects
    - Delayed Effects of Hypoxia
  - TREATMENT FOR HYPOXIA – OXYGEN THERAPY
- OXYGEN TOXICITY (POISONING)
  - DEFINITION AND CAUSE
  - EFFECTS OF OXYGEN TOXICITY
- HYPERCAPNEA
  - DEFINITION
  - CONDITIONS WHEN HYPERCAPNEA OCCURS
  - EFFECTS OF HYPERCAPNEA
- HYPOCAPNEA
  - DEFINITION
  - CONDITIONS WHEN HYPOCAPNEA OCCURS
  - EFFECTS OF HYPOCAPNEA
- ASPHYXIA
  - DEFINITION
  - CONDITIONS WHEN ASPHYXIA OCCURS
  - EFFECTS OF ASPHYXIA
- DYSPNEA
  - DEFINITION
  - DYSPNEA POINT
  - CONDITIONS WHEN DYSPNEA OCCURS
- DYSPNEIC INDEX
- PERIODIC BREATHING
  - DEFINITION AND TYPES
  - CHEYNE-STOKES BREATHING
    - Causes for Waxing and Waning
    - Conditions when Cheyne-Stokes Breathing Occurs
  - BIOT'S BREATHING
- CYANOSIS
  - DEFINITION
  - DISTRIBUTION OF CYANOSIS
  - CONDITIONS WHEN CYANOSIS OCCURS
  - CYANOSIS AND ANEMIA
- CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING
  - INTRODUCTION
  - SOURCES OF CARBON MONOXIDE
  - TOXIC EFFECTS OF CARBON MONOXIDE
  - SYMPTOMS OF CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING
  - TREATMENT FOR CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING
- ATELECTASIS
  - DEFINITION
  - CAUSES
  - EFFECTS
- PNEUMOTHORAX
  - DEFINITION
  - CAUSES
  - TYPES AND EFFECTS
- PNEUMONIA
  - DEFINITION
  - CAUSES
  - TYPES
  - EFFECTS
    - Delirium
- BRONCHIAL ASTHMA
  - DEFINITION
  - CAUSES
  - FEATURES
- PULMONARY EDEMA
  - DEFINITION
  - CAUSES
  - EFFECTS
- PLEURAL EFFUSION
  - DEFINITION
  - CAUSES
  - FEATURES
- PULMONARY TUBERCULOSIS
  - DEFINITION
  - FEATURES
- EMPHYSEMA
  - DEFINITION AND CAUSES
  - DEVELOPMENT OF EMPHYSEMA
  - EFFECTS OF EMPHYSEMA
128:High Altitude and Space Physiology
- HIGH ALTITUDE
- BAROMETRIC PRESSURE AND PARTIAL PRESSURE OF OXYGEN AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES
- CHANGES IN THE BODY AT HIGH ALTITUDE
- MOUNTAIN SICKNESS
- ACCLIMATIZATION
  - DEFINITION
  - CHANGES DURING ACCLIMATIZATION
- AVIATION PHYSIOLOGY
- SPACE PHYSIOLOGY
  - EFFECTS OF TRAVEL BY SPACECRAFT
129:Deep Sea Physiology
- INTRODUCTION
- BAROMETRIC PRESSURE AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS
- EFFECT OF HIGH BAROMETRIC PRESSURE – NITROGEN NARCOSIS
- DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS
- SCUBA
130:Effects of Exposure to Cold and Heat
- EFFECTS OF EXPOSURE TO COLD
  - HEAT PRODUCTION
    - 1. By Increased Metabolic Activities
    - 2. By Shivering
  - PREVENTION OF HEAT LOSS
- EFFECTS OF EXPOSURE TO SEVERE COLD
  - LOSS OF TEMPERATURE REGULATING CAPACITY
  - FROSTBITE
- EFFECTS OF EXPOSURE TO HEAT
131:Artificial Respiration
- CONDITIONS WHEN ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION IS REQUIRED
- METHODS OF ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION
  - MANUAL METHODS
    - Mouth to Mouth Method
    - Holger Nielsen Method or Back Pressure Arm Lift Method
  - MECHANICAL METHODS
    - Drinker's Method
    - Ventilation Method
132:Effects of Exercise on Respiration
- INTRODUCTION
- EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON RESPIRATION
- QUESTIONS IN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AND ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY
  - LONG QUESTIONS
  - SHORT QUESTIONS
SECTION 10: NERVOUS SYSTEM
133:Introduction to Nervous System
- DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
  - CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
  - PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
    - 1. Somatic Nervous System
    - 2. Autonomic Nervous System
134:Neuron
- INTRODUCTION
- CLASSIFICATION OF NEURON
- STRUCTURE OF NEURON
- NEUROTROPHINS – NEUROTROPHIC FACTORS
  - NERVE GROWTH FACTOR
    - Chemistry
    - Functions
  - OTHER NEUROTROPHINS
135:Classification of Nerve Fibers
- BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION
136:Properties of Nerve Fibers
- EXCITABILITY
- CONDUCTIVITY
  - MECHANISM OF CONDUCTION OF ACTION POTENTIAL
  - CONDUCTION THROUGH MYELINATED NERVE FIBER – SALTATORY CONDUCTION
    - Mechanism of Saltatory Conduction
- REFRACTORY PERIOD
  - TYPES OF REFRACTORY PERIOD
    - 1. Absolute Refractory Period
    - 2. Relative Refractory Period
- SUMMATION
- ADAPTATION
- INFATIGABILITY
- ALL OR NONE LAW
137:Degeneration and Regeneration of Nerve Fibers
- INTRODUCTION
- DEGREES OF INJURY
- DEGENERATIVE CHANGES IN THE NEURON
- REGENERATION OF NERVE FIBER
  - CRITERIA FOR REGENERATION
  - STAGES OF REGENERATION
138:Nrurogila
- DEFINITION
- CLASSIFICATION OF NEUROGLIAL CELLS
- CENTRAL NEUROGLIAL CELLS
- PERIPHERAL NEUROGLIAL CELLS
  - SCHWANN CELLS
    - Functions of Schwann Cells
  - SATELLITE CELLS
    - Functions of Satellite Cells
139:Receptors
- DEFINITION
- CLASSIFICATION OF RECEPTORS
  - EXTEROCEPTORS
- INTEROCEPTORS
- PROPERTIES OF RECEPTORS
140:Synapse
- DEFINITION
- CLASSIFICATION OF SYNAPSE
  - ANATOMICAL CLASSIFICATION
  - FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
    - 1. Electrical Synapse
    - 2. Chemical Synapse
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF CHEMICAL SYNAPSE
- FUNCTIONS OF SYNAPSE
  - EXCITATORY FUNCTION
  - INHIBITORY FUNCTION
- PROPERTIES OF SYNAPSE
- CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE
  - CONVERGENCE
  - DIVERGENCE
141:Neurotransmitters
- DEFINITION
- HISTORY
- CRITERIA FOR NEUROTRANSMITTER
- CLASSIFICATION OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
  - DEPENDING UPON CHEMICAL NATURE
  - DEPENDING UPON FUNCTION
    - 1. Excitatory Neurotransmitters
    - 2. Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
- TRANSPORT AND RELEASE OF NEUROTRANSMITTER
- INACTIVATION OF NEUROTRANSMITTER
- REUPTAKE OF NEUROTRANSMITTER
- IMPORTANT NEUROTRANSMITTERS
- NEUROMODULATORS
  - NON-OPIOID PEPTIDES
  - OPIOID PEPTIDES
- COTRANSMISSION AND COTRANSMITTERS
142:Reflex Activity
- DEFINITION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF REFLEXES
- REFLEX ARC
- CLASSIFICATION OF REFLEXES
- SUPERFICIAL REFLEXES
  - 1. MUCOUS MEMBRANE REFLEXES
  - 2. CUTANEOUS REFLEXES OR SKIN REFLEXES
- DEEP REFLEXES
- VISCERAL REFLEXES
- PATHOLOGICAL REFLEXES
- PROPERTIES OF REFLEXES
- RECIPROCAL INHIBITION AND RECIPROCAL INNERVATION
- REFLEXES IN MOTOR NEURON LESION
  - UPPER MOTOR NEURON LESION
  - LOWER MOTOR NEURON LESION
143:Spinal Cord
- INTRODUCTION
- GRAY MATTER OF SPINAL CORD
  - NUCLEI
  - LAMINAE
- WHITE MATTER OF SPINAL CORD
- TRACTS IN SPINAL CORD
- ASCENDING TRACTS OF SPINAL CORD
- DESCENDING TRACTS OF SPINAL CORD
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
144:Somatosensory System and Somatomotor System
- SOMATOSENSORY SYSTEM
- SOMATOMOTOR SYSTEM
145:Physiology of Pain
- INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION
- BENEFITS OF PAIN SENSATION
- COMPONENTS OF PAIN SENSATION
- PATHWAYS OF PAIN SENSATION
- VISCERAL PAIN
  - CAUSES OF VISCERAL PAIN
- REFERRED PAIN
- NEUROTRANSMITTERS INVOLVED IN PAIN SENSATION
- ANALGESIA SYSTEM
  - ANALGESIC PATHWAY
    - Role of Analgesic Pathway in Inhibiting Pain Transmission
    - Neurotransmitters of Analgesic Pathway
- GATE CONTROL THEORY
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
146:Brainstem
- INTRODUCTION
- MEDULLA OBLONGATA
- PONS
- MIDBRAIN
  - TECTUM
    - 1. Superior Colliculus
    - 2. Inferior Colliculus
  - CEREBRAL PEDUNCLES
147:Thalamus
- INTRODUCTION
- THALAMIC NUCLEI
- CONNECTIONS OF THALAMIC NUCLEI
- THALAMIC RADIATIONS
- FUNCTIONS OF THALAMUS
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
  - THALAMIC LESION
  - THALAMIC SYNDROME
148:Internal Capsule
- DEFINITION
- SITUATION
- DIVISIONS
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – EFFECT OF LESIONS OF INTERNAL CAPSULE
149:Hypothalamus
- INTRODUCTION
- NUCLEI OF HYPOTHALAMUS
- CONNECTIONS OF HYPOTHALAMUS
  - AFFERENT CONNECTIONS TO HYPOTHALAMUS
  - EFFERENT CONNECTIONS FROM HYPOTHALAMUS
- FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHALAMUS
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – DISORDERS OF HYPOTHALAMUS
150:Cerebellum
- PARTS OF CEREBELLUM
  - VERMIS
    - Fissures Present Over the Surface of Vermis
  - CEREBELLAR HEMISPHERES
- DIVISIONS OF CEREBELLUM
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF CEREBELLUM
- VESTIBULOCEREBELLUM (ARCHICEREBELLUM)
- SPINOCEREBELLUM (PALEOCEREBELLUM)
- CORTICOCEREBELLUM (NEOCEREBELLUM)
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – CEREBELLAR LESIONS
151:Basal Ganglia
- INTRODUCTION
- COMPONENTS OF BASAL GANGLIA
- CONNECTIONS OF BASAL GANGLIA
- FUNCTIONS OF BASAL GANGLIA
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – DISORDERS OF BASAL GANGLIA
152:Cerebral Cortex
- INTRODUCTION
- HISTOLOGY OF CEREBRAL CORTEX
  - LAYERS OF CEREBRAL CORTEX
  - NEOCORTEX AND ALLOCORTEX
- LOBES OF CEREBRAL CORTEX
- CEREBRAL DOMINANCE
  - CEREBRAL DOMINANCE AND HANDEDNESS
- BRODMANN AREAS
- FRONTAL LOBE OF CEREBRAL CORTEX
- PARIETAL LOBE
- TEMPORAL LOBE
- OCCIPITAL LOBE
  - AREAS OF VISUAL CORTEX
    - Connections
    - Functions
  - APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
- METHODS TO STUDY CORTICAL CONNECTIONS AND FUNCTIONS
153:Limbic System
- INTRODUCTION
- COMPONENTS OF LIMBIC SYSTEM
- CONNECTIONS OF LIMBIC SYSTEM
- FUNCTIONS OF LIMBIC SYSTEM
154:Reticular Formation
- DEFINITION
- SITUATION OF RETICULAR FORMATION
- ORGANIZATION OF RETICULAR FORMATION
- DIVISIONS OF RETICULAR FORMATION
- CONNECTIONS OF RETICULAR FORMATION
  - AFFERENT CONNECTIONS
  - EFFERENT CONNECTIONS
- FUNCTIONS OF RETICULAR FORMATION
  - ASCENDING RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (ARAS)
    - Functions of ARAS
    - Mechanism of Action of ARAS
  - DESCENDING RETICULAR SYSTEM
    - Descending Facilitatory Reticular System
    - Descending Inhibitory Reticular System
155:Preparations of Animals for Experimental Studies
- INTRODUCTION
- DECORTICATE PREPARATION
- DECEREBRATE PREPARATION
- THALAMIC (MIDBRAIN) PREPARATION
- SPINAL PREPARATION
156:Proprioceptors
- PROPRIOCEPTORS
- MUSCLE SPINDLE
- GOLGI TENDON ORGAN
- PACINIAN CORPUSCLE
- FREE NERVE ENDING
157:Posture and Equilibrium
- DEFINITION
- BASIC PHENOMENA OF POSTURE
  - MUSCLE TONE
  - STRETCH REFLEX
- POSTURAL REFLEXES
158:Vestibular Apparatus
- INTRODUCTION
- LABYRINTH
  - BONY LABYRINTH
  - MEMBRANOUS LABYRINTH
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF VESTIBULAR APPARATUS
  - SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
    - Ampulla
  - OTOLITH ORGAN OR VESTIBULE
- RECEPTOR ORGAN IN VESTIBULAR APPARATUS
  - RECEPTOR ORGAN IN SEMICIRCULAR CANAL – CRISTA AMPULLARIS
    - Hair Cells
    - Cupula
  - RECEPTOR ORGAN IN OTOLITH ORGAN – MACULA
    - Otolith Membrane
    - Situation of Macula
- NERVE SUPPLY TO VESTIBULAR APPARATUS
  - FIRST ORDER NEURON
    - Vestibular Nuclei
    - Fibers to Cerebellum
  - SECOND ORDER NEURON
- FUNCTIONS OF VESTIBULAR APPARATUS
  - FUNCTIONS OF SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
  - FUNCTION OF OTOLITH ORGAN
- EFFECTS OF STIMULATION OF SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
  - ROTATIONAL MOVEMENT
  - CALORIC STIMULATION
    - Effects of Caloric Stimulation
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – EFFECT OF LABYRINTHECTOMY
  - BILATERAL LABYRINTHECTOMY
  - UNILATERAL LABYRINTHECTOMY
- MOTION SICKNESS
159:Electroencephalogram (EEG)
- INTRODUCTION
- SIGNIFICANCE OF EEG
- METHOD OF RECORDING EEG
- WAVES OF EEG
- EEG DURING SLEEP
160:Physiology of Sleep
- SLEEP REQUIREMENT
- PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES DURING SLEEP
- TYPES OF SLEEP
  - 1. RAPID EYE MOVEMENT SLEEP (REM SLEEP)
  - 2. NON-RAPID EYE MOVEMENT SLEEP (NREM OR NON-REM SLEEP)
- STAGES OF SLEEP AND EEG PATTERN
  - RAPID EYE MOVEMENT SLEEP
  - NON-RAPID EYE MOVEMENT SLEEP
- MECHANISM OF SLEEP
  - SLEEP CENTERS
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – SLEEP DISORDERS
161:Epilepsy
- INTRODUCTION
- TYPES OF EPILEPSY
- GENERALIZED EPILEPSY
- LOCALIZED EPILEPSY
162:Higher Intellectual Functions
- HIGHER INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONS
- LEARNING
  - DEFINITION
  - TYPES OF LEARNING
    - 1. Non-associative Learning
    - 2. Associative Learning
- MEMORY
- CONDITIONED REFLEXES
- SPEECH
163:Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
- INTRODUCTION
- PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF CSF
- FORMATION OF CSF
- CIRCULATION OF CSF
- ABSORPTION OF CSF
- PRESSURE EXERTED BY CSF
- FUNCTIONS OF CSF
- COLLECTION OF CSF
  - LUMBAR PUNCTURE
    - Posture of Body for Lumbar Puncture
    - Uses of Lumbar Puncture
- BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER
  - STRUCTURE OF BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER
  - FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER
    - Substances which can Pass through Blood-Brain Barrier
    - Substances which cannot Pass through Blood-Brain Barrier
- BLOOD – CEREBROSPINAL FLUID BARRIER
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – HYDROCEPHALUS
164:Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
- INTRODUCTION
  - DIVISIONS OF ANS
- SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
  - SYMPATHETIC GANGLIA
- PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
  - CRANIAL NERVES OF PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
- FUNCTIONS OF ANS
- NEUROTRANSMITTERS OF ANS
  - SYMPATHETIC FIBERS
  - PARASYMPATHETIC FIBERS
- SYMPATHOMIMETIC DRUGS
- SYMPATHETIC BLOCKERS
- PARASYMPATHOMIMETIC DRUGS
- PARASYMPATHETIC BLOCKERS
- GANGLIONIC BLOCKERS
- QUESTIONS IN NERVOUS SYSTEM
  - LONG QUESTIONS
  - SHORT QUESTIONS
SECTION 11: SPECIAL SENSES
165:Structure of the Eye
- SPECIAL SENSES
- FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE EYEBALL
- WALL OF THE EYEBALL
- FUNDUS OCULI
- INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE
- LENS
  - STRUCTURE OF THE LENS
  - CHANGES IN THE LENS DURING OLD AGE
- OCULAR MUSCLES
  - MUSCLES OF THE EYEBALL
    - 1. Intrinsic Muscles
    - 2. Extrinsic Muscles
  - INNERVATION OF OCULAR MUSCLES
- OCULAR MOVEMENTS
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
  - GLAUCOMA
  - CATARACT
166:Visual Process
- INTRODUCTION
- IMAGE FORMING MECHANISM
- NEURAL BASIS OF VISUAL PROCESS
- CHEMICAL BASIS OF VISUAL PROCESS
- ELECTRICAL BASIS OF VISUAL PROCESS – ELECTRORETINOGRAM
- ACUITY OF VISION
  - DEFINITION
  - TEST FOR VISUAL ACUITY
    - Distant Vision
    - Near Vision
167:Field of Vision
- DEFINITION
- BINOCULAR AND MONOCULAR VISION
  - BINOCULAR VISION
  - MONOCULAR VISION
- DIVISIONS OF VISUAL FIELD
  - TEMPORAL AND NASAL FIELDS
  - UPPER AND LOWER FIELDS
- CORRESPONDING RETINAL POINTS
  - DIPLOPIA
    - Causes of Diplopia
    - Experimental Diplopia
- BLIND SPOT
- VISUAL FIELD AND RETINA
- MAPPING OF VISUAL FIELD
168:Visual Pathway
- INTRODUCTION
- VISUAL RECEPTORS
- FIRST ORDER NEURONS
- SECOND ORDER NEURONS
- THIRD ORDER NEURONS
- CONNECTIONS OF VISUAL RECEPTORS TO OPTIC NERVE
  - PRIVATE PATHWAY
  - DIFFUSE PATHWAY
- COURSE OF VISUAL PATHWAY
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – EFFECTS OF LESION AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF VISUAL PATHWAY
169:Pupillary Reflexes
- INTRODUCTION
- LIGHT REFLEX
- ACCOMMODATION REFLEX
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
170:Color Vision
- INTRODUCTION
- VISIBLE SPECTRUM AND SPECTRAL COLORS
- THEORIES OF COLOR VISION
- COLOR SENSITIVE AREAS IN RETINA
- CONTRAST EFFECTS
  - SIMULTANEOUS CONTRAST
  - SUCCESSIVE CONTRAST
- AFTER IMAGE
  - 1. POSITIVE AFTER IMAGE
  - 2. NEGATIVE AFTER IMAGE
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – COLOR BLINDNESS
171:Errors of Refraction
- AMETROPIA
  - MYOPIA OR SHORT SIGHTEDNESS
    - Cause
    - Correction
  - HYPERMETROPIA OR LONG SIGHTEDNESS
    - Cause
    - Correction
- ANISOMETROPIA
- ASTIGMATISM
- PRESBYOPIA
  - CAUSES OF PRESBYOPIA
  - CORRECTION OF PRESBYOPIA
172:Structure of Ear
- EXTERNAL EAR
  - AURICLE OR PINNA
  - EXTERNAL AUDITORY MEATUS
    - 1. The Outer Cartilaginous Part
    - 2. The Inner Bony Part
- MIDDLE EAR
- INTERNAL EAR
173:Auditory Pathway
- INTRODUCTION
- RECEPTORS
- FIRST ORDER NEURONS
- SECOND ORDER NEURONS
- THIRD ORDER NEURONS
- CORTICAL AUDITORY CENTERS
- FUNCTIONS OF CORTICAL AUDITORY CENTERS
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – EFFECT OF LESION
174:Mechanism of Hearing
- INTRODUCTION
- ROLE OF EXTERNAL EAR
- ROLE OF MIDDLE EAR
- ROLE OF INNER EAR
  - TRAVELING WAVE
    - Resonance Point
  - EXCITATION OF HAIR CELLS
- ELECTRICAL EVENTS DURING PROCESS OF HEARING
- PROPERTIES OF SOUND
- APPRECIATION OF PITCH OF THE SOUND – THEORIES OF HEARING
  - THEORIES OF FIRST GROUP
    - 1. Telephone Theory of Rutherford
    - 2. Volley Theory
  - THEORIES OF SECOND GROUP
- APPRECIATION OF LOUDNESS OF SOUND
- LOCALIZATION OF SOUND
175:Auditory Defects
- TYPES AND CAUSES OF AUDITORY DEFECTS
  - CONDUCTION DEAFNESS
  - NERVE DEAFNESS
    - Causes for Nerve Deafness
- TESTS FOR HEARING
176:Sensation of Taste
- TASTE BUDS
  - SITUATION OF TASTE BUDS
  - STRUCTURE OF TASTE BUD
- PATHWAY FOR TASTE
- PRIMARY TASTE SENSATIONS
- DISCRIMINATION OF DIFFERENT TASTE SENSATIONS
- TASTE SENSATIONS AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTIONS
- TASTE TRANSDUCTION
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – ABNORMALITIES OF TASTE SENSATION
177:Sensation of Smell
- OLFACTORY RECEPTORS
  - VOMERONASAL ORGAN
    - Vomeronasal Receptors in Human Beings
- OLFACTORY PATHWAY
- GENERATOR POTENTIAL IN OLFACTORY RECEPTOR
- CLASSIFICATION OF ODOR
- THRESHOLD FOR OLFACTORY SENSATION
- ADAPTATION
- APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – ABNORMALITIES OF OLFACTORY SENSATION
- QUESTIONS IN SPECIAL SENSES
  - LONG QUESTIONS
  - SHORT QUESTIONS

INDEX

TOC
Index

Chapter Notes