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Biochemistry
Pankaja Naik
SECTION 1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE CELL AND BIO-MOLECULES
CHAPTER 1:
The Cell
Introduction
Molecular and Functional Organisation of a Cell and its Subcellular Components
Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
MEMBRANE LIPIDS
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
GLYCOLIPIDS
CHOLESTEROL
PROTEINS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE
FUNCTIONS OF INTEGRAL PROTEINS
FUNCTIONS OF PERIPHERAL PROTEINS
MEMBRANE CARBOHYDRATES (THE CELL GLYCOCALAYX)
FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE CARBOHYDRATE
FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE
DISORDER OF MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROTEIN
CYSTIC FIBROSIS (CF)
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
THE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL OF CELL MEMBRANE
Cytoplasm and its Organelles
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
ROUGH OR GRANULAR ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
SMOOTH OR AGRANULAR ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Golgi Apparatus
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Mitochondria (Power House of Cell)
STRUCTURE OF MITOCHONDRIA
Nucleus
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS
FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS
Cytoskeleton
FUNCTIONS OF CYTOSKELETON
STRUCTURE OF CYTOSKELETON
MICROFILAMENTS
MICROTUBULES
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
Membrane Transport
PASSIVE TRANSPORT OR PASSIVE DIFFUSION
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
EXAMPLES OF PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT OF NA+ AND K+/SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP
PHYSIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF NA+-K+ PUMP
PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT OF CALCIUM/CALCIUM PUMP
PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT OF H+ IONS/PROTON PUMP
P-TYPE ATPASE
SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
CO-TRANSPORT OR SYMPORT
COUNTER TRANSPORT OR ANTIPORT MECHANISM
TRANSPORT OF MACROMOLECULES ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
PINOCYTOSIS
PHAGOCYTOSIS
DIGESTION OF ENDOCYTIC VESICLES
EXOCYTOSIS
Cell Fractionation
ISOPYKNIC CENTRIFUGATION TECHNIQUE
Marker Enzymes
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
SHORT NOTES
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 2:
Carbohydrate Chemistry
Introduction
DEFINITION
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
Classification and Nomenclature of Carbohydrate
CLASSIFICATION
MONOSACCHARIDES (GREEK: MONO = ONE)
OLIGOSACCHARIDES (GREEK: OLIGO = FEW)
POLYSACCHARIDES (GREEK: POLY = MANY) OR GLYCANS
Monosaccharide
STRUCTURE OF MONOSACCHARIDE
CYCLIC FORMULA (HAWORTH PROJECTION FORMULA)
BOAT AND CHAIR FORM
ISOMERISM
STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM
STEREOISOMERISM
D AND L ISOMERISM
OPTICAL ISOMERISM
EPIMERISM
ANOMERISM
α AND β ANOMERISM
MUTAROTATION
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MONOSACCHARIDE
ACTION OF STRONG ACIDS (FURFURAL FORMATION)
ACTION OF ALKALIES (ENOLIZATION)
OXIDATION (SUGAR ACID FORMATION)
FORMATION OF ALDONIC ACID
FORMATION OF SACCHARIC OR ALDERIC ACID
FORMATION OF URONIC ACIDS
REDUCTION TO FORM SUGAR ALCOHOL
ACTION OF PHENYLHYDRAZINE (OSAZONE FORMATION)
GLYCOSIDE FORMATION
BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT SUGAR DERIVATIVES OF MONOSACCHARIDE
PHOSPHORIC ACID ESTER OF MONOSACCHARIDES
AMINO SUGAR
DEOXY SUGARS
SUGAR ACIDS
SUGAR ALCOHOLS
NEURAMINIC ACID
SIALIC ACID
Oligosaccharides
Disaccharide
MALTOSE
ISOMALTOSE
LACTOSE (MILK SUGAR)
SUCROSE (COMMON TABLE SUGAR)
TREHALOSE
POLYSACCHARIDES (GLYCANS)
Homopolysaccharides or Homoglycans
STARCH
AMYLOSE
AMYLOPECTIN
DEXTRIN
IMPORTANCE
GLYCOGEN (ANIMAL STARCH)
FUNCTION
CELLULOSE
IMPORTANCE
INULIN
DEXTRANS
HETEROGLYCANS
AGAR
GUM AND PECTINS
GLYCOSAMINOGLYCANS (GAGs) OR MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES (TABLE 2.7)
STRUCTURE OF GAG
OCCURRENCE OF GAGs
FUNCTIONS OF GAGs
TYPES OF GAGs
MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDOSES
GLYCOPROTEIN
ATTACHMENT OF CARBOHYDRATE (OLIGOSACCHARIDE) TO PROTEIN
FUNCTIONS OF GLYCOPROTEINS
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (LAQs)
Short notes
Short answer questions (SAQs)
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 3:
Chemistry of Lipid
Introduction
Definition, Classification and Functions of Lipids
DEFINITION OF LIPID
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
SIMPLE LIPID
COMPLEX OR COMPOUND LIPID
FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
Fatty Acids
NOMENCLATURE OF FATTY ACIDS
NUMBERING OF FATTY ACID CARBON ATOMS (FIGURE 3.1)
REPRESENTATION OF DOUBLE BONDS OF FATTY ACIDS
C-SYSTEM
ω- OR N-SYSTEM
ISOMERISM OF DOUBLE BOND OF FATTY ACIDS
CIS AND TRANS ISOMERISM
CLASSIFICATION OF FATTY ACIDS
STRAIGHT CHAIN FATTY ACID
BRANCHED CHAIN FATTY ACIDS
SUBSTITUTED FATTY ACIDS
CYCLIC FATTY ACIDS
FUNCTIONS OF FATTY ACIDS
Properties and Reactions of Lipids
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
REACTIONS OF LIPIDS
HYDROLYSIS
SAPONIFICATION
HYDROGENATION
PEROXIDATION
RANCIDITY
CHARACTERISATION OF FAT (TESTS FOR PURITY OF FAT)
SAPONIFICATION NUMBER
IODINE NUMBER
ACID NUMBER
REICHERT MEISSL NUMBER
Essential Fatty Acids
FUNCTIONS OF ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS (EFA)
SYNTHESIS OF EICOSANOIDS
MAINTENANCE OF STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
DEVELOPMENT OF RETINA AND BRAIN
ANTIATHEROGENIC EFFECT
ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID DEFICIENCY
Storage Lipid
ACYLGLYCEROLS OR GLYCERIDES
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS OR TRIACYLGLYCERIDES OR NEUTRAL FAT
FUNCTIONS OF TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
OCCURRENCE
Structural Lipids or Membrane Lipids
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
CLASSIFICATION OF PHOSPHOLIPID
GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPID OR PHOSPHOGLYCERIDE
SPHINGOPHOSPHOLIPIDS
FUNCTIONS OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS
GLYCOLIPIDS
CLASSIFICATION OF GLYCOLIPIDS
FUNCTIONS OF GLYCOLIPIDS
STEROLS
CHOLESTEROL (ANIMAL STEROL)
PLANT STEROLS
Lipoproteins
CLASSES OF LIPOPROTEINS
SITE OF SYNTHESIS AND FUNCTIONS OF LIPOPROTEINS
SEPARATION OF LIPOPROTEINS
APOLIPOPROTEINS
ROLE OF APOLIPOPROTEINS
ABNORMAL FORM OF LIPOPROTEIN
LIPOPROTEIN (A) (LPA)
Eicosanoids
CLASSES OF EICOSANOIDS
PROSTAGLANDINS
THROMBOXANES
LEUKOTRIENES (LT)
BIOSYNTHESIS OF EICOSANOIDS
CYCLOOXYGENASE PATHWAY
LIPOOXYGENASE PATHWAY (FIGURE 3.19)
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF INHIBITOR OF PROSTAGLANDIN SYNTHESIS
Formation of Micelles, Lipid Bilayer, and Liposomes by Amphipathic Phospholipids
MICELLES
LIPID BILAYER
LIPOSOME (ARTIFICIALLY FORMED PHOSPHOLIPID VESICLES)
USES OF LIPOSOMES
Detergents
NATURALLY OCCURRING DETERGENTS
SYNTHETIC DETERGENTS
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (LAQS)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 4:
Chemistry of Proteins
Introduction
General Nature of Amino Acids
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CHEMICAL NATURE OF THE AMINO ACID IN SOLUTION
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF SIDE CHAIN OF THE AMINO ACID
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NATURE OR POLARITY OF SIDE CHAIN OF AMINO ACID
NUTRITIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACID
METABOLIC CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS
IMPORTANCE OF AMINO ACIDS
NATURALLY OCCURRING NON-PROTEIN AMINO ACIDS
MODIFIED OR NON-STANDARD AMINO ACIDS
CYSTINE
HYDROXY-PROLINE AND HYDROXY-LYSINE
DESMOSINE AND ISODESMOSINE
GAMMA CARBOXYGLUTAMATE
PHOSPHOSERINE, PHOSPHOTHREONINE AND PHOSPHOTYROSINE
N-METHYLYSINE
SELENOCYSTEINE
PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACIDS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACIDS
BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT PEPTIDES
INSULIN
GLUCAGON
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE (ACTH)
THYROTROPIN RELEASING HORMONE
CORTICOTROPIN
OXYTOCIN
VASOPRESSIN
GASTRIN
ANGIOTENSIN
CARNOSINE AND ANSERINE
BRADYKININ
GLUTATHIONE(GSH)
ENkEPHALINS
ASPARTAMe
Classification of Proteins
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS BASED ON FUNCTIONS
CATALYTIC PROTEINS OR ENZYMES
TRANSPORT PROTEIN
STORAGE PROTEINS
CONTRACTILE PROTEIN
STRUCTURAL PROTEINS
DEFENCE PROTEIN
REGULATORY PROTEIN
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MOLECULAR SHAPE OF THE PROTEINS
FIBROUS PROTEINS
GLOBULAR PROTEIN
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS BASED ON PHYSICAL (SOLUBILITY AND HEAT CoAGULABILITY) AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PROTEIN
SIMPLE PROTEINS
CONJUGATED PROTEINS
DERIVED PROTEINS
Structure of Proteins
BONDS RESPONSIBLE FOR PROTEIN STRUCTURE
COVALENT BOND
NON-COVALENT BONDS OR INTERACTIONS
PRIMARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
STRUCTURE OF INSULIN
CLINICAL IMPORTANCE OF PRIMARY STRUCTURE
SECONDARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
α-HELIX
β-PLEATED SHEET STRUCTURE OR STRETCHED STATE STRUCTURE
LOOP REGIONS
β-BEND OR β-TURN
DISORDERED REGIONS
TRIPLE HELIX
SUPER SECONDARY STRUCTURE
TERTIARY STRUCTURE
TERTIARY STRUCTURE STABILIZING FORCES
QUATERNARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEIN
QUATERNARY STRUCTURE STABILIZING FORCES
PROTEIN STRUCTURE−FUNCTION RELATIONSHIP
MYOGLOBIN
MYOGLOBINURIA
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF HAEMOGLOBIN (FOR DETAILS REFER Chapter 8)
STRUCTURE-FUNCTION RELATIONSHIP IN MYOGLOBIN AND HAEMOGLOBIN
STRUCTURE-FUNCTION RELATIONSHIP IN ADULT HAEMOGLOBIN (HBA) AND FETAL HAEMOGLOBIN (HBF)
PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS
COLLOIDAL NATURE
COLLOIDAL OSMOTIC PRESSURE
MOLECULAR WEIGHT
SOLUBILITY
SHAPE OF THE PROTEIN
HYDRATION OF PROTEINS
VISCOSITY
AMPHOTERIC NATURE AND ISOELECTRIC pH OF THE PROTEINS
ISOELECTRIC pH OF THE PROTEIN
PRECIPITATION OF PROTEINS
PRECIPITATION BY ORGANIC SOLVENTS
DENATURATION OF PROTEIN
DENATURING AGENTS
EXAMPLE OF DENATURED PROTEIN
SIGNIFICANCE OF DENATURATION
CoAGULATION
SEPARATION OF PROTEINS
SEPARATION OF PROTEINS BASED ON SOLUBILITY
SEPARATION ON THE BASIS OF MOLECULAR SIZE
SEPARATION ON THE BASIS OF MOLECULAR CHARGE
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (LAQs)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 5:
Plasma Proteins and Immunoglobulins
Introduction
CLINICAL IMPORTANCE OF PLASMA PROTEINS
Plasma Proteins
SYNTHESIS OF PLASMA PROTEINS
SEPARATION OF PLASMA PROTEINS
FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA PROTEINS
MAINTENANCE OF COLLOIDAL OSMOTIC PRESSURE (ONCOTIC PRESSURE)
MAINTENANCE OF BLOOD PRESSURE
MAINTENANCE OF ACID-BASE BALANCE
ROLE IN TRANSPORT OR BINDING MECHANISM
ROLE IN DEFENCE MECHANISM OF BODY
INVOLVEMENT IN INFLAMMATORY RESPONSES
ENZYMATIC FUNCTION OF PROTEINS
ROLE IN BLOOD CoAGULATION
MAJOR CLASSES OF PLASMA PROTEINS (Figure 5.1)
PREALBUMIN
ALBUMIN
HYPOALBUMINAEMIA
HYPERALBUMINAEMIA
ANALBUMINAEMIA
GLOBULINS
Acute Phase Response and Acute Phase Proteins
Immunoglobulins (Ig)
STRUCTURE OF IMMUNOGLOBULIN (Figure 5.5)
FUNCTIONS OF IMMUNOGLOBULIN (ANTIBODY)
IMMUNOGLOBULIN CLASSES
IgG (HEAVY CHAIN γ)
IgA (HEAVY CHAIN α)
IgM (HEAVY CHAIN μ)
IgD (HEAVY CHAIN δ)
IgE (HEAVY CHAIN ε)
POLYCLONAL ANTIBODIES
MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES
IN VITRO PREPARATION OF MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES
CLINICAL IMPORTANCE OF IMMUNOGLOBULINS
HYPERGAMMAGLOBULINAEMIA
POLYCLONAL (DIFFUSE) HYPERGAMMAGLOBULINAEMIA
MONOCLONAL (DISCRETE) HYPERGAMMAGLOBULINAEMIA (PARAPROTEINAEMIA)
MULTIPLE MYELOMA (MYELOMATOSIS)
WALDENSTROM'S MACROGLOBULINAEMIA
CRYOGLOBULINAEMIA
AMYLOID DISEASE
BENCE JONES PROTEINS
BENIGN PARAPROTEINAEMIA
HYPOGAMMAGLOBULINAEMIA (IMMUNOGLOBULIN DEFICIENCY)
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 6:
Enzymes
Introduction
BIOCHEMICAL NATURE OF ENZYME
DEFINITION
RIBOZYMES (CATALYTIC RNAs)
ZYMOGEN OR PROENZYME OR PRECURSOR ENZYME
COFACTORS (COENZYME AND ACTIVATOR)
COENZYMES DERIVED FROM NON-VITAMINS PRECURSORS
LIPOIC ACID
COENZYME Q
BIOPTERINE
LOCALIZATION OF ENZYMES
INTRACELLUAR ENZYMES
EXTRACELLULAR ENZYMES
How Enzymes Work
ENERGY CHANGES OCCUR DURING THE REACTION
ACTIVE SITE OF AN ENZYME
MECHANISM OF ENZYME ACTION
LOCK AND KEY MODEL OR RIGID TEMPLATE MODEL OF EMIL FISHER
INDUCED FIT MODEL OR HAND-IN-GLOVE MODEL OF DANIEL E KOSHLAND (FIGURE 6.8)
Enzyme Classification
EC-1 OXIDOREDUCTASES
SPECIFIC EXAMPLE
EC-2 TRANSFERASES
SPECIFIC EXAMPLE
EC-3 HYDROLASES
SPECIFIC EXAMPLE
EC-4 LYASES
SPECIFIC EXAMPLE
EC-5 ISOMERASES
SPECIFIC EXAMPLE
EC-6 LIGASES (SYNTHETASES)
SPECIFIC EXAMPLE
SPECIFICITY OF ENZYME ACTION
SIGNIFICANCE OF SPECIFICITY
TYPES OF SPECIFICITY
ABSOLUTE SPECIFICITY
GROUP SPECIFICITY
REACTION SPECIFICITY
STEREO SPECIFICITY
Enzyme Kinetics
MICHAELIS-MENTEN EQUATION
SIGNIFICANCE of Vmax and km
Km (MICHAELIS CONSTANT)
Vmax (MAXIMAL VELOCITY)
TURNOVER NUMBER OR CATALYTIC CONSTANT (KCAT)
LINEWEAVER-BURK PLOT OR DOUBLE-RECIPROCAL PLOT
SIGNIFICANCE OF LINEWEAVER-BURK PLOT
Factors Affecting the Velocity of Enzyme Reaction
SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION
ENZYME CONCENTRATION
HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION pH
TEMPERATURE
EFFECT OF PRODUCT
INHIBITION OF ENZYME CATALYZED REACTIONS
REVERSIBLE INHIBITOR
COMPETITIVE OR SUBSTRATE ANALOGUE INHIBITOR
IRREVERSIBLE INHIBITOR
SIGNIFICANCE OF ENZYME INHIBITOR
Regulatory Enzymes
ALLOSTERIC ENZYME OR NON-COVALENTLY REGULATED ENZYMES
FEEDBACK ALLOSTERIC INHIBITION
HOMOTROPIC EFFECTORS
HETEROTROPIC EFFECTOR
COVALENTLY REGULATED ENZYMES
ENZYMES REGULATED BY INDUCTION AND REPRESSION OF ENZYME SYNTHESIS
REGULATION OF ENZYME ACTIVITY BY SPECIFIC PROTEOLYTIC CLEAVAGE
ADVANTAGE OF A CASCADE REGULATORY MECHANISM
BLOOD CLOTTING
Isoenzyme
LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE (LDH)
NORMAL VALUES OF LDH
CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF LDH
CREATINE KINASE (CK)
NORMAL VALUES OF CK
CLINICAL APPLICATION
Diagnostic, Therapeutic and Analytical Use of Enzymes
DIAGNOSTIC USE OF ENZYMES
THE PLASMA SPECIFIC ENZYMES
THE PLASMA NONSPECIFIC ENZYMES
CLASSIFICATION OF DIAGNOSTICALLY IMPORTANT ENZYMES
LIVER, CARDIAC, AND SKELETAL ENZYMES
BILIARY TRACT ENZYMES
DIGESTIVE ENZYME OF PANCREATIC ORIGIN
OTHER ENZYMES OF DIAGNOSTIC IMPORTANT
ENZYMES AS TUMOUR MARKER
ENZYMES ASSAYS IN MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION
ANALYTICAL USE OF ENZYMES
ENZYME AS REAGENT
ENZYMES AS LABELS
THERAPEUTIC USES OF ENZYMES
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (LAQS)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 7:
Vitamins
Introduction
DEFINITION
CLASSIFICATION
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS, WHICH INCLUDE
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS WHICH INCLUDE
Difference between Fat Soluble and Water Soluble Vitamins
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
THIAMINE (VITAMIN B1)
THIAMINE RESPONSIVE INBORN ERRORS
RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2)
NIACIN (VITAMIN B3)
PANTOTHENIC ACID (VITAMIN B5)
PYRIDOXINE (VITAMIN B6)
BIOTIN
FOLIC ACID
COBALAMIN (VITAMIN B12)
VITAMIN C (ASCORBIC ACID)
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
VITAMIN A
VITAMIN D (CHOLECALCIFEROL)
VITAMIN E (TOCOPHEROL)
VITAMIN K
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (LAQS)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
SOLVE
1. CASE HISTORY
2. CASE HISTORY
3. CASE HISTORY
4. CASE HISTORY
5. CASE HISTORY
6. CASE HISTORY
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 8:
Chemistry of Haemoglobin
Introduction
STRUCTURE OF HAEMOGLOBIN
HAEM
GLOBIN
FUNCTION OF GLOBIN
FUNCTIONS OF HAEMOGLOBIN
Binding Sites for Oxygen, Hydrogen (H+) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2) with Haemoglobin
FORMATION OF OXYHAEMOGLOBIN (RELAXED OR R-STRUCTURE)
COOPERATIVE OXYGEN BINDING OF HAEMOGLOBIN
PHYSIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE COOPERATIVE BINDING OF OXYGEN BY HAEMOGLOBIN
EFFECT OF pH AND CARBON DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION ON BINDING OF OXYGEN TO HAEMOGLOBIN AND BOHR EFFECT
EFFECT OF 2-3 BISPHOSPHOGLYCERATE (BPG) ON BINDING OF OXYGEN TO HAEMOGLOBIN
BINDING SITE OF 2-3 BPG
PHYSIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF BINDING OF 2-3 BPG TO HB
WHY HBF HAS HIGH AFFINITY FOR O2 THAN HBA?
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF 2-3 BPG
Types of Normal and Abnormal Haemoglobin
NORMAL HUMAN HAEMOGLOBIN
ADULT HAEMOGLOBIN (HBA1)
HUMAN FETAL HAEMOGLOBIN (HBF)
GLYCOSYLATED HAEMOGLOBIN (HBA1C)
ABNORMAL HAEMOGLOBIN
THALASSEMIA
SICKLE CELL DISEASE OR SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA AND SICKLE HAEMOGLOBIN
HbC DISEASE OR COOLEY'S HAEMOGLOBIN
HbM DISEASES
Derivatives of Haemoglobin
NORMAL HAEMOGLOBIN DERIVATIVES
OXYHAEMOGLOBIN
REDUCED HAEMOGLOBIN OR FERROHAEMOGLOBIN
CARBAMINOHAEMOGLOBIN OR CARBHAEMOGLOBIN
ABNORMAL HAEMOGLOBIN DERIVATIVES
METHAEMOGLOBIN
SULPHAEMOGLOBIN
CARBOXYHAEMOGLOBIN (COHb)
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
SOLVE
CASE HISTORY
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 9:
Chemistry of Nucleic Acid
Introduction
Structure and Functions of Nucleotides
NITROGENOUS BASES OF RNA AND DNA
PURINE BASES
PYRIMIDINE BASES
TAUTOMERISM OF BASES
UNUSUAL, OR ABNORMAL OR MINOR, RARE MODIFIED PURINE AND PYRIMIDINE BASES
BASES PRESENT IN PLANTS (FIGURE 9.5)
SUGARS PRESENT IN RNA AND DNA
NUCLEOSIDES
NOMENCLATURE OF NUCLEOSIDE
NUCLEOTIDES
NOMENCLATURE OF NUCLEOTIDES
UNUSUAL NUCLEOTIDES
FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES
Biological Important Free Nucleotides
NUCLEOTIDES OF ADENINE
ADP AND ATP
CYCLIC AMP (ADENOSINE 3′, 5′-MONOPHSOPHATE)
NUCLEOTIDES OF GUANINE
GDP AND GTP
CYCLIC GMP (GUANOSINE 3′, 5′-MONOPHOSPHATE) (FIGURE 9.10)
NUCLEOTIDES OF URACIL
NUCLEOTIDES OF CYTOSINE
HYPOXANTHINE NUCLEOTIDE
COENZYMES
Synthetic Analogues of Nucleotides or Antimetabolites
ACTION OF SYNTHETIC ANALOGUES ON CANCER CELLS
DNA Structure and Function
PRIMARY STRUCTURE OF DNA
THE WATSON-CRICK DNA DOUBLE HELICAL STRUCTURE
SECONDARY STRUCTURE OF DNA
DNA STRUCTURAL POLYMORPHISM (DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL FORMS OF DNA) (FIGURE 9.16)
IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURAL POLYMORPHISM OF DNA
SPECIFICITY OF THE PAIRING OF BASES AND CHARGAFF′S RULE
FUNCTIONS OF DNA
HIGHER ORDER OR TERTIARY STRUCTURE OF DNA
REGULATION OF SUPERCOILING
ORGANIZATION OF DNA
PROKARYOTIC DNA
EUKARYOTIC DNA
CHROMOSOMES
NUCLEOSOMES
HIGHER LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION OF CHROMATIN FIBRE TO SOLENOID
NON-HISTONES CHROMATIN PROTEINS
CELLULAR LOCATION OF DNA
RNA Structure and Function
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RNA AND DNA
TYPES OF RNA
MESSENGER RNA (m-RNA)
TRANSFER RNA (t-RNA)
RIBOSOMAL RNA (r-RNA)
RIBOZYME (REFER CHAPTER 6 ENZYME)
CATALYTIC ROLE OF RIBOSOMES AS RIBOZYME
OTHER NUCLEAR AND CYTOPLASMIC RNAs
HETEROGENEOUS RNAs (PRECURSORS OF m-RNA)
SMALL CYTOPLASMIC RNAs (sc-RNAs)
SMALL NUCLEAR RNAs (sn-RNA)
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
SECTION 2: ENERGY METABOLISM, NUTRITION AND METABOLISM OF BIO-MOLECULES
CHAPTER 10:
Bioenergetics and Biological Oxidation
Introduction
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Bioenergetics and Role of ATP
KINDS OF USEFUL ENERGY IN LIVING CELLS
FREE ENERGY ΔG OR CHEMICAL POTENTIAL
HEAT ENERGY
STANDARD FREE ENERGY
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ΔG°′ AND ΔG
ATP-CYCLE
STANDARD FREE ENERGY OF HYDROLYSIS OF ATP
ENERGY CURRENCY OF THE CELL
Oxidation and Reduction
REDOX POTENTIAL [Eo']
BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION AND OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
ENZYMES, COENZYMES AND ELECTRON CARRIERS OF BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION
ENZYMES AND COENZYMES
HYDROPEROXIDASES
PEROXIDASES
CATALASES
OXYGENASES
ELECTRON CARRIERS
Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation
LOCALIZATION OF THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
FUNCTION OF RESPIRATORY CHAIN
COMPONENTS OF THE RESPIRATORY CHAIN OR ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF COMPONENTS OF RESPIRATORY CHAIN
REACTIONS OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT OR RESPIRATORY CHAIN
FORMATION OF NADH
FORMATION OF FMNH2
REMOVAL OF ELECTRONS BY CYTOCHROMES
REDUCTION OF OXYGEN TO WATER
FORMATION OF ATP IN OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
COUPLING SITES FOR ATP SYNTHESIS
F0 F1 ATPASE
MECHANISM OF OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
CHEMIOSMOTIC THEORY
P:O RATIO AND RESPIRATORY CONTROL
P:O RATIO
RESPIRATORY CONTROL
SUBSTRATE LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION
Inhibitors of Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation
INHIBITORS OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN PROPER
INHIBITORS OF FIRST SITE OR COMPLEX-I
INHIBITORS OF SECOND SITE OR COMPLEX-III
INHIBITORS OF THIRD SITE OR COMPLEX-IV
INHIBITORS OF OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION (FOF1 ATPASE)
UNCOUPLERS OF OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
THERMOGENIN: A NATURAL UNCOUPLER
IONOPHORES
Shuttle Systems for Oxidation of Extramitochondrial NADH
THE MALATE-ASPARTATE SHUTTLE SYSTEM
SIGNIFICANCE OF MALATE-ASPARTATE SHUTTLE
GLYCEROL PHOSPHATE SHUTTLE (FIGURE 10.19)
SIGNIFICANCE OF GLYCEROL-PHOSPHATE SHUTTLE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MALATE-ASPARTATE AND GLYCEROL PHOSPHATE SHUTTLE
DISORDERS OF MITOCHONDRIAL ELECTRON-TRANSPORT AND OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION (OXPHOS)
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTION (LAQ)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 11:
Human Nutrition
Introduction
Nutrients and their Role in Humans
MACRONUTRIENTS
MICRONUTRIENTS
ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL NUTRIENT CLASSES IN NORMAL HUMAN METABOLISM
CARBOHYDRATE
DIETARY FIBRE
FAT
PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS
VITAMINS
MINERALS
Nutritional Requirements
Energy Requirements
MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY
FACTORS AFFECTING ENERGY EXPENDITURE
THE BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR)
THE THERMOGENIC EFFECT (SPECIFIC DYNAMIC ACTION, SDA) OF FOOD
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
NONEXERCISE ACTIVITY
ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE
Balanced Diet
DEFINITION OF BALANCED DIET
BALANCED DIET SUGGESTED BY ICMR
Nutritional Disorders
UNDERNUTRITION
PROTEIN CALORIC MALNUTRITION (PCM) OR PROTEIN ENERGY MALNUTRITION (PEM)
OVERNUTRITION
OBESITY
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
SHORT NOTES
SOLVE
CASE HISTORY 1
CASE HISTORY 2
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 12:
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Introduction
Digestion, Absorption and Transport of Carbohydrates
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
DIGESTION IN MOUTH
DIGESTION IN STOMACH
DIGESTION IN INTESTINE
WHY HUMANS ARE UNABLE TO DIGEST CELLULOSE?
ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
ACTIVE TRANSPORT AGAINST CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
FACILITATIVE TRANSPORT (WITH THE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT)
TRANSPORT OF CARBOHYDRATE
DISORDERS OF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATE
LACTOSE INTOLERANCE
SUCRASE DEFICIENCY
Metabolic Fate of Carbohydrates
GLYCOLYSIS
DEFINITION
LOCATION
REACTIONS OF GLYCOLYSIS
ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS
REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS
SIGNIFICANCE OF GLYCOLYSIS
ENERGETICS OF GLYCOLYSIS
RAPOPORT LUBERING CYCLE OR BISPHOSPHOGLYCERATE SHUNT
SIGNIFICANCE OF RAPOPORT LUBERING CYCLE
DISORDER OF GLYCOLYSIS
PYRUVATE KINASE DEFICIENCY
HEXOKINASE DEFICIENCY
LACTIC ACIDOSIS
METABOLIC FATES OF PYRUVATE
CONVERSION OF PYRUVATE TO ETHANOL
CONVERSION OF PYRUVATE TO LACTATE
SIGNIFICANCE OF FORMATION OF ETHANOL AND LACTATE FROM PYRUVATE
CONVERSION OF PYRUVATE TO ACETYL-CoA
ENZYMES AND COENZYMES INVOLVED IN THE FORMATION OF ACETYL-CoA FROM PYRUVATE
COENZYMES REQUIRED FOR CONVERSION OF PYRUVATE TO ACETYL-CoA
SEQUENCE OF REACTIONS
REGULATION OF PYRUVATE TO ACETYL-CoA PATHWAY
METABOLIC FATES OF ACETYL-CoA
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
DEFINITION
AMPHIBOLIC NATURE OF CITRIC ACID CYCLE
LOCATION OF CITRIC ACID CYCLE
REACTIONS OF CITRIC ACID CYCLE (FIGURE 12.15)
GENERATION OF ATP IN CITRIC ACID CYCLE PER TURN
ROLE OF VITAMINS IN CITRIC ACID CYCLE
SIGNIFICANCE OF CITRIC ACID CYCLE
ROLE OF CITRIC ACID CYCLE IN GLUCONEOGENESIS, TRANSAMINATION AND FATTY ACID AND PORPHYRIN SYNTHESIS
REGULATION OF CITRIC ACID CYCLE
ANAPLEROTIC REACTIONS
SIGNIFICANCE OF ANAPLEROTIC REACTIONS
GLYOXYLATE CYCLE
REACTIONS OF GLYOXYLATE CYCLE (FIGURE 12.19)
ROLE OF GLYOXYLATE CYCLE IN GERMINATING PLANT SEEDS
CHARACTERISTIC DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CITRIC ACID CYCLE AND GLYOXYLATE CYCLE
GLUCONEOGENESIS
DEFINITION
LOCATION OF GLUCONEOGENESIS
CHARACTERISTICS OF GLUCONEOGENESIS
REACTIONS OF GLUCONEOGENESIS (FIGURE 12.20)
SUBSTRATE FOR GLUCONEOGENESIS
WHY CONVERSION OF ACETYL-CoA TO GLUCOSE IS NOT POSSIBLE IN HUMAN BEING?
REGULATION OF GLUCONEOGENESIS
SIGNIFICANCE OF GLUCONEOGENESIS
Glycogen Metabolism
GLYCOGENESIS
DEFINITION
LOCATION
REACTIONS OF GLYCOGENESIS (FIGURE 12.23)
GLYCOGENOLYSIS
DEFINITION AND LOCATION
REACTIONS OF GLYCOGENOLYSIS (FIGURE 12.23)
LYSOSOMAL DEGRADATION OF GLYCOGEN
SIGNIFICANCE OF GLYCOGENOLYSIS AND GLYCOGENESIS
REGULATION OF GLYCOGENESIS AND GLYCOGENOLYSIS
ALLOSTERIC REGULATION (FIGURE 12.26)
FUTILE CYCLE
SIGNIFICANCE OF FUTILE CYCLE
DISORDER OF FUTILE CYCLE
GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASE OR GLYCOGENOSIS
PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
DEFINITION
LOCATION
REACTIONS OF THE PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY (FIGURE 12.29)
SIGNIFICANCE OF PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
REGULATION OF PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
DISORDER OF PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
URONIC ACID PATHWAY (GLUCURONIC ACID CYCLE)
DEFINITION
REACTIONS OF URONIC ACID PATHWAY (FIGURE 12.31)
SIGNIFICANCE OF URONIC ACID PATHWAY
DISORDER OF GLUCURONIC ACID PATHWAY
GaLACTOSE METABOLISM AND GALACTOSEMIA
REACTIONS OF THE PATHWAY (FIGURE 12.33)
DISORDER OF GALACTOSE METABOLISM
METABOLISM OF FRUCTOSE
REACTIONS OF FRUCTOSE METABOLISM (FIGURE 12.34)
SORBITOL OR POLYOL PATHWAY FOR FORMATION OF FRUCTOSE
THE EFFECT OF HYPERGLYCAEMIA ON SORBITOL METABOLISM
DISORDERS OF FRUCTOSE METABOLISM
BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL AND ITS REGULATION
HORMONES AND METABOLIC PROCESSES
MAINTENANCE OF GLUCOSE IN FED STATE (HYPERGLYCEMIC CONDITION)
MAINTENANCE OF BLOOD GLUCOSE IN FASTING STATE (HYPOGLYCEMIC CONDITION)
Renal Control Mechanism
GLYCOSURIA
ALIMENTARY (LAG STORAGE) GLUCOSURIA
RENAL GLUCOSURIA
DIABETIC GLUCOSURIA
DIABETES MELLITUS
DEFINITION
CLASSIFICATION OF DIABETES MELLITUS
CLINICAL FEATURES OF DIABETES MELLITUS (FIGURE 12.40)
DIAGNOSIS OF DIABETES MELLITUS
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (LAQS)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
SOLVE THE FOLLOWING
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 13:
Lipid Metabolism
Introduction
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
DIGESTION OF LIPIDS
DIGESTION IN MOUTH
DIGESTION IN STOMACH
DIGESTION IN SMALL INTESTINE
ACTION OF PANCREATIC ENZYMES ON DIETARY LIPIDS IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
PRODUCTS OF LIPID DIGESTION
ABSORPTION OF LIPIDS BY INTESTINAL MUCOSAL CELLS
TRANSPORT
ABNORMALITIES IN LIPID DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
LIPID MALABSORPTION
Fatty Acid Metabolism
WHY TRIACYLGLYCEROLS ARE HIGHLY CONCENTRATED ENERGY STORES THAN GLYCOGEN?
UTILIZATION OF FATTY ACIDS AS A FUEL
MOBILIZATION OF FATTY ACIDS FROM TRIACYLGLYCEROL (LIPOLYSIS)
FATE OF GLYCEROL
OXIDATION OF FATTY ACIDS
β-OXIDATION OF FATTY ACIDS
ACTIVATION OF FATTY ACID
CARNITINE TRANSPORT SYSTEM OF LONG CHAIN FATTY ACIDS ACROSS THE INNER MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANE (FIGURE 13.8)
β-OXIDATION OF A FATTY ACID WITH AN ODD NUMBER OF CARBON ATOMS
REGULATION OF β-OXIDATION
PEROXISOMAL FATTY ACID OXIDATION (FIGURE 13.13)
ROLE OF PEROXISOMAL β-OXIDATION
DISORDER OF PEROXISOMAL FATTY ACID OXIDATION
α-OXIDATION (FIGURE 13.14)
DISORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH IMPAIRMENT OF α-FATTY ACID OXIDATION
ω-OXIDATION (FIGURE 13.15)
OXIDATION OF UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
OXIDATION OF MONOUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS (FIGURE 13.16)
OXIDATION OF POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS (FIGURE 13.17)
ENERGY YIELD FROM OXIDATION OF “UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
Metabolism of Ketone Bodies
FAT BURNS IN THE FLAME OF CARBOHYDRATE
KETOGENESIS (FORMATION OF KETONE BODIES) (Figure 13.19)
FORMATION OF ACETOACETATE
FORMATION OF β-HYDROXY BUTYRATE
FORMATION OF ACETONE
FATE OR UTILIZATION OF KETONE BODIES
ACTIVATION OF KETONE BODIES (FIGURE 13.20)
UTILIZATION OF KETONE BODIES (FIGURE 13.20)
SIGNIFICANCE OF KETOGENESIS
REGULATION OF KETOGENESIS
DISORDER OF KETONE BODY METABOLISM
KETOSIS
KETOACIDOSIS
DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACIDS (LIPOGENESIS)
PHASES OF DE NOVO FATTY ACID SYNTHESIS
PHASE I
PHASE II
PHASE III
SYNTHESIS OF ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS
IMPORTANCE OF ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS
REGULATION OF FATTY ACID SYNTHESIS (LIPOGENESIS)
SHORT-TERM CONTROL MECHANISM (FIGURE 13.31)
LONG-TERM CONTROL MECHANISM
Triacylglycerol Metabolism
BIOSYNTHESIS OF TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
FATE OF TRIACYLGLYCEROL FORMED IN LIVER AND ADIPOSE TISSUE
FATE OF TRIACYLGLYCEROL IN THE LIVER
FATE OF TRIACYLGLYCEROL IN ADIPOSE TISSUE (SEE FIGURE 13.47)
Phospholipid Metabolism
BIOSYNTHESIS OF GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS
SYNTHESIS OF PHOSPHATIDYLSERINE AND PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL (FIGURE 13.33)
SYNTHESIS OF PHOSPHATIDYLCHOLINE (LECITHINS) AND PHOSPHATIDYLETHANOLAMINE (CEPHALINS) (FIGURE 13.33)
SYNTHESIS OF CARDIOLIPIN (DIPHOSPHATIDYL GLYCEROL) (FIGURE 13.34)
SYNTHESIS OF PLASMALOGENS (GLYCEROL ETHER PHOSPHOLIPID)
BIOSYNTHESIS OF SPHINGOMYELIN
DEGRADATION OF GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS
DEGRADATION OF SPHINGOPHOSPHOLIPID
Glycolipid (Glycosphingolipid Metabolism)
BIOSYNTHESIS OF GLYCOLIPIDS
SYNTHESIS OF GANGLIOSIDES
DEGRADATION OF SPHINGOLIPIDS (SPHINGOMYELINS AND GLYCOLIPIDS)
DISORDERS OF GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS AND SPHINGOLIPIDS
RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME (RDS)
MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
SPHINGOLIPIDOSES (SPHINGOLIPID STORAGE DISEASE)
Lipoprotein Metabolism and Transport of Lipids
THE APOLIPOPROTEINS OR APOPROTEINS
METABOLISM OF LIPOPROTEINS
ENZYMES AND TRANSFER PROTEIN INVOLVED IN LIPOPROTEIN METABOLISM (TABLE 13.6)
LIPOPROTEIN RECEPTORS
THE EXOGENOUS LIPOPROTEIN METABOLIC CYCLE (FIGURE 13.42)
METABOLISM OF CHYLOMICRONS (Figure 13.42)
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE EXOGENOUS PATHWAY
THE ENDOGENOUS LIPOPROTEIN METABOLIC CYCLE (FIGURE 13.43)
THE UNREGULATED MECHANISM FOR REMOVAL OF LDL FROM BLOOD
REVERSE CHOLESTEROL TRANSPORT
DIAGNOSTIC IMPORTANCE OF LIPOPROTEINS
DISORDERS OF LIPOPROTEIN METABOLISM
HYPERLIPOPROTEINAEMIA
HYPOLIPOPROTEINAEMIA
ABETALIPOPROTEINAEMIA
TANGIER DISEASE OR ANALPHALIPOPROTEINAEMIA
White Adipose Tissue Metabolism and Storage of Lipid
SYNTHESIS OF TRIACYLGLYCEROL IN ADIPOSE TISSUE
DEGRADATION OF TRIACYLGLYCEROLS AND MOBILIsATION OF FREE FATTY ACID FROM ADIPOSE TISSUE
SIGNIFICANCE OF ADIPOSE TISSUE METABOLISM
REGULATION OF ADIPOSE TISSUE METABOLISM (Figure 13.47)
REGULATION OF LIPOLYSIS
BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE METABOLISM THERMOGENESIS
REGULATION OF BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE METABOLISM
DISORDER OF LIPID TRANSPORT AND STORAGE
FATTY LIVER
LIPOTROPIC FACTORS
Cholesterol Metabolism
DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF CHOLESTEROL
STAGES OF DE NOVO CHOLESTEROL SYNTHESIS
REGULATION OF DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF CHOLESTEROL (FIGURE 13.53)
COMPETITIVE INHIBITOR DRUGS OF HMG-CoA REDUCTASE
ESTERIFICATION OF CHOLESTEROL
TRANSPORT OF CHOLESTEROL (Figure 13.54)
TRANSPORT OF DIETARY CHOLESTEROL FROM INTESTINE
TRANSPORT OF CHOLESTEROL FROM LIVER
TRANSPORT OF CHOLESTEROL FROM PERIPHERAL TISSUE TO LIVER
GOOD AND BAD CHOLESTEROL
DEGRADATION OF CHOLESTEROL
FORMATION OF BILE ACIDS
FORMATION OF BILE SALTS FROM BILE ACIDS
FORMATION OF STEROID HORMONES (FIGURE 13.56)
FORMATION OF VITAMIN D
EXCRETION OF CHOLESTEROL (see Figure 13.54)
BLOOD CHOLESTEROL
FACTORS AFFECTING PLASMA CHOLESTEROL LEVEL
DIET
DISORDERS OF CHOLESTEROL METABOLISM
FAMILIAL HYPERCHOLESTEROLAEMIA
ATHEROSCLEROSIS
Alcohol Metabolism
BIOCHEMICAL ALTERATIONS DUE TO ALCOHOL
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (LAQS)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
SOLVE THE FOLLOWING
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 14:
Protein Metabolism
Introduction
Digestion and Absorption of Proteins
DIGESTION OF PROTEINS
DIGESTION IN MOUTH
DIGESTION IN STOMACH
DIGESTION IN INTESTINE BY PANCREATIC ENZYMES
DIGESTION IN INTESTINE BY INTESTINAL PROTEOSES
ABSORPTION OF AMINO ACIDS
ROLE OF GLUTATHIONE (γ-GLUTAMYL CYSTEINYL GLYCINE) IN AMINO ACID ABSORPTION
ABSORPTION OF INTACT PROTEIN
GENETIC DEFECT IN AMINO ACID TRANSPORT
Metabolism of Amino Acids
AMINO ACID POOL
PROTEIN TURNOVER
NITROGEN BALANCE
NITROGEN EQUILIBRIUM
POSITIVE NITROGEN BALANCE
NEGATIVE NITROGEN BALANCE
Catabolism of Amino Acids
REMOVAL OF AMINO GROUP IN THE FORM OF AMMONIA
TRANSAMINATION
DEAMINATION
DISPOSAL OF AMMONIA OR METABOLIC FATE OF AMMONIA (FIGURE 14.11)
FORMATION OF GLUTAMATE
FORMATION OF GLUTAMINE
FORMATION OF UREA
Urea Cycle
SEQUENCE OF REACTIONS
FORMATION OF CARBAMOYL PHOSPHATE
FORMATION OF CITRULLINE
FORMATION OF ARGINOSUCCINATE
FORMATION OF ARGININE AND FUMARATE
FORMATION OF UREA AND ORNITHINE
THE ENERGY COST OF UREA CYCLE
SIGNIFICANCE OF UREA CYCLE
REGULATION OF UREA CYCLE
REGULATION BY FEED-FORWARD MECHANISM
ALLOSTERIC REGULATION
METABOLIC INBORN ERRORS OF UREA CYCLE
SYMPTOMS
AMMONIA INTOXICATION
BLOOD UREA
HIGH BLOOD UREA CONCENTRATION
DISPOSAL (CATABOLISM) OF CARBON SKELETON OF AMINO ACIDS
KETOGENIC AMINO ACIDS
GLUCOGENIC AMINO ACIDS
SOME IMPORTANT REACTIONS INVOLVED IN AMINO ACID METABOLISM
DECARBOXYLATION
BIOGENIC AMINES
POLYAMINES
TRANSMETHYLATION
TRANSCARBOXYLATION
One Carbon Metabolism
SOURCES OF ONE CARBON GROUPS CARRIED BY THF
RECIPIENTS OF ONE CARBON GROUPS
IMPORTANCE OF ONE CARBON GROUPS METABOLISM
Metabolism of Aliphatic Side Chain Containing Amino Acids
METABOLISM OF GLYCINE
SYNTHESIS OF GLYCINE
CATABOLISM OF GLYCINE
FUNCTIONS OF GLYCINE (SEE FIGURE 14.27)
METABOLIC DISORDER OF GLYCINE
SYNTHESIS AND DEGRADATION OF CREATINE
DEGRADATION OF CREATINE
METABOLISM OF ALANINE
SYNTHESIS AND CATABOLISM OF ALANINE
METABOLISM OF BRANCHED CHAIN AMINO ACIDS (FIGURE 14.29)
CATABOLISM OF BRANCHED CHAIN AMINO ACIDS
METABOLIC DISORDER OF BRANCHED CHAIN AMINO ACIDS
Metabolism of Aromatic Amino Acids
METABOLISM OF PHENYLALANINE AND TYROSINE
CATABOLISM OF PHENYLALANINE AND TYROSINE
METABOLIC DISORDER OF PHENYLALANINE AND TYROSINE
PHENYLKETONURIA (PKU)
TYROSINAEMIA
TYROSINAEMIA I
TYROSINAEMIA II (RICHNER-HANHART SYNDROME)
BENIGN TRANSIENT NEONATAL TYROSINAEMIA
LABORATORY DIAGNOSTIC TEST
ALKAPTONURIA
ALBINISM
BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS DERIVED FROM TYROSINE
BIOSYNTHESIS OF MELANIN PIGMENT (FIGURE 14.37)
BIOSYNTHESIS OF THYROXINE AND TRIIODOTHYROXINE
METABOLISM OF TRYPTOPHAN
BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS DERIVED FROM TRYPTOPHAN
CATABOLISM OF TRYPTOPHAN
KYNURENINE PATHWAY
SEROTONIN PATHWAY
SEROTONIN
CARCINOID TUMOURS
MELATONIN
BACTERIAL DEGRADATIVE PATHWAY
METABOLIC DISORDER OF TRYPTOPHAN
Metabolism of Sulfur Containing Amino Acids
METABOLISM OF CYSTINE AND CYSTEINE
CATABOLISM OF CYSTINE
CATABOLISM OF CYSTEINE
THE TRANSAMINATION PATHWAY (FIGURE 14.43)
METABOLISM OF METHIONINE
CATABOLISM OF METHIONINE AND SYNTHESIS OF CYSTEINE
SYNTHESIS OF METHIONINE FROM HOMOCYSTEINE
WHY HIGH HOMOCYSTEINE LEVELS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH-RISK FOR CORONARY HEART DISEASE?
METABOLIC DISORDER OF SULFUR CONTAINING AMINO ACIDS
HOMOCYSTEINAEMIA
HOMOCYSTINURIA
CYSTATHIONINURIA
Metabolism of Hydroxyl Group Containing Amino Acids
METABOLISM OF SERINE
SYNTHESIS OF SERINE
CATABOLISM OF SERINE
IMPORTANCE OF SERINE
METABOLISM OF THREONINE
CATABOLISM OF THREONINE
Metabolism of Acidic Amino Acids
METABOLISM OF GLUTAMIC ACID
SYNTHESIS OF GLUTAMIC ACID
CATABOLISM OF GLUTAMIC ACID
IMPORTANCE OF GLUTAMIC ACID
METABOLISM OF GLUTAMINE
SYNTHESIS OF GLUTAMINE
DEGRADATION OF GLUTAMINE
IMPORTANCE OF GLUTAMINE
METABOLISM OF ASPARTIC ACID
SYNTHESIS OF ASPARTIC ACID
DEGRADATION OF ASPARTIC ACID
FUNCTIONS OF ASPARTIC ACID
METABOLISM OF ASPARGINE
SYNTHESIS OF ASPARGINE
DEGRADATION OF ASPARGINE
Metabolism of Imino Acid
METABOLISM OF PROLINE
SYNTHESIS OF PROLINE
DEGRADATION OF PROLINE
IMPORTANCE OF PROLINE
METABOLIC DISORDERS OF PROLINE
METABOLISM OF BASIC AMINO ACID
METABOLISM OF ARGININE
SYNTHESIS OF ARGININE
DEGRADATION OF ARGININE
IMPORTANCE OF ARGININE
METABOLIC DISORDERS OF ARGININE
METABOLISM OF HISTIDINE
DEGRADATION OF HISTIDINE
IMPORTANCE OF HISTIDINE
METABOLIC DISORDERS OF HISTIDINE
METABOLISM OF LYSINE
CATABOLISM OF LYSINE
IMPORTANCE OF LYSINE
METABOLIC DISORDER OF LYSINE
PERIODIC HYPERLYSINAEMIA
Review of the Contents
REVEIW QUESTIONS
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (LAQs)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
SOLVE THE FOLLOWING
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 15:
Integration of Metabolism and Metabolism in Starvation
Introduction
Integration of Metabolism
DEFINITION
SIGNIFICANCE OF INTEGRATION OF METABOLISM
INTEGRATION OF METABOLISM AT CELLULAR LEVEL (Figure 15.2)
CONVERSION OF CARBOHYDRATES INTO FATS
CONVERSION OF FATTY ACIDS TO CARBOHYDRATE
CONVERSION OF CARBOHYDRATES INTO PROTEINS AND PROTEINS INTO CARBOHYDRATES
CONVERSION OF PROTEINS TO FATS
CONVERSION OF FATS INTO PROTEINS
INTEGRATION OF METABOLISM AT TISSUE OR ORGAN LEVEL
ROLE OF LIVER
ROLE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
ROLE OF HEART MUSCLE
ROLE OF ADIPOSE TISSUE
ROLE OF BRAIN
Metabolism in Starvation
DEFINITION
FUEL RESERVE OF A NORMAL HEALTHY PERSON
PHASES OF STARVATION
METABOLIC CHANGES OCCUR DURING SHORT- TERM STARVATION (INTRAPRANDIAL AND THE POST-ABSORPTIVE PHASE) (FIGURE 15.5)
INCREASED GLYCOGENOLYSIS
INCREASED GLUCONEOGENESIS
CHANGES IN PROTEIN METABOLISM AND ROLE OF MUSCLES
CHANGES IN FAT METABOLISM AND ROLE OF ADIPOSE TISSUE
INCREASED FATTY ACID OXIDATION
METABOLIC CHANGES OCCUR DURING PROLONGED STARVATION (FIGURE 15.8)
CHANGES IN CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
CHANGES IN PROTEIN METABOLISM
CHANGES IN FAT METABOLISM
EFFECT ON VITAMINS
CHANGES IN EXCRETION OF URINARY NITROGEN
EFFECT ON URINARY WATER EXCRETION
EFFECT ON EXCRETION OF AMMONIUM IONS (NH4+) TO MAINTAIN ACID-BASE BALANCE
EFFECT ON BMR
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (LAQS)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 16:
Water Metabolism
Introduction
IMPORTANCE OF WATER
TOTAL BODY WATER (TBW)
BODY WATER COMPARTMENTS AND VOLUME OF THE BODY WATER COMPARTMENTS
DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN A BODY WATER COMPARTMENT (TABLE 16.1)
FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
NORMAL WATER BALANCE
ELECTROLYTES
DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTROLYTES
REGULATION OF WATER AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCE
DISORDERS OF WATER AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCES
DEHYDRATION
OVERHYDRATION OR WATER INTOXICATION
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
SOLVE THE FOLLOWING
CASE HISTORY
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 17:
Mineral Metabolism
Introduction
FUNCTIONS OF MINERALS
Study of Macrominerals
METABOLISM OF SODIUM, POTASSIUM AND CHLORIDE
SODIUM
CLINICAL CONDITIONS RELATED TO PLASMA SODIUM LEVEL ALTERATIONS
POTASSIUM
CLINICAL CONDITIONS RELATED TO PLASMA POTASSIUM LEVEL ALTERATIONS
CHLORIDE
CLINICAL CONDITIONS RELATED TO PLASMA CHLORIDE LEVEL ALTERATIONS
METABOLISM OF CALCIUM, PHOSPHORUS AND MAGNESIUM
CALCIUM
CLINICAL CONDITIONS RELATED TO PLASMA CALCIUM LEVEL ALTERATIONS
PHOSPHORUS
CLINICAL CONDITIONS RELATED TO PLASMA PHOSPHORUS CONCENTRATION ALTERATIONS
MAGNESIUM
SERUM MAGNESIUM
CLINICAL CONDITIONS RELATED TO PLASMA MAGNESIUM CONCENTRATION ALTERATIONS
STUDY OF MICROMINERALS OR TRACE ELEMENTS
CHROMIUM (CR)
COBALT (CO)
COPPER (CU)
FLUORINE (F)
IODINE (I2)
IRON (FE)
MANGANESE (MN)
MOLYBDENUM (MO)
SELENIUM (SE)
ZINC (ZN)
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTION (LAQ)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
SOLVE
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 18:
Haemoglobin Metabolism
Introduction
Haem Synthesis
STAGES OF HAEM SYNTHESIS
BIOSYNTHESIS OF δ-AMINOLEVULINIC ACID (δ-ALA)
FORMATION OF PORPHOBILINOGEN (PBG)
CONVERSION OF PORPHOBILINOGEN TO PORPHYRINS AND HAEM
REGULATION OF HAEM SYNTHESIS
DISORDER OF HAEM BIOSYNTHESIS
PORPHYRIAS
Breakdown of Haemoglobin
FATE OF BILIRUBIN
UPTAKE OF BILIRUBIN BY LIVER PARENCHYMAL CELLS
CONJUGATION OF BILIRUBIN
SECRETION OF BILIRUBIN INTO BILE
EXCRETION OF BILIRUBIN IN THE FORM OF UROBILINOGEN THROUGH FAECES AND URINE
DISORDER OF HAEMOGLOBIN CATABOLISM
HYPERBILIRUBINAEMIA
ACQUIRED HYPERBILIRUBINAEMIA
THE INHERITED HYPERBILIRUBINAEMIAS
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTION (LAQ)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
SOLVE
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 19:
Nucleic Acid Metabolism
Introduction
Digestion of Dietary Nucleic Acid
Biosynthesis of Purine Nucleotides
DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES
PRECURSORS FOR THE DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF PURINE
MAJOR STEPS OF DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES
REGULATION OF DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDE (FIGURE 19.6)
CONCENTRATION OF PRPP
FEEDBACK REGULATION
SYNTHESIS OF PURINE NUCLEoTIDES BY SALVAGE PATHWAY
Significance of Salvage Pathway
DEFINITION
SALVAGE REACTION BY PHOSPHORIBOSYLATION OF PURINE BASES (Figure 19.7)
SALVAGE REACTION BY PHOSPHORYLATION OF PURINE NUCLEOSIDES
SYNTHESIS OF DEOXYRIBONUCLeOTIDES
DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLeOTIDES
PRECURSORS FOR THE DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF PYRIMIDINE (FIGURE 19.9)
MAJOR STEPS FOR DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDE (FIGURE 19.10)
REGULATION OF DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES
SALVAGE PATHWAY FOR PYRIMiDINE NUCLEOTIDE SYNTHESIS
Catabolism of Purine Nucleotides
SIGNIFICANCE OF URIC ACID
CATABOLISM PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES
Disorders Associated with Purine and Pyrimidine Nucleotide Metabolism
DISORDERS OF PURINE CATABOLISM
FACTORS AFFECTING FORMATION OF URIC ACID
EXCRETION OF URIC ACID
HYPERURICAEMIA
GOUT
LESCH-NYHAN SYNDROME
HYPOURICAEMIA
XANTHINURIA
IMMUNODEFICIENCY DISORDERS OF PURINE METABOLISM
DISORDERS OF PYRIMIDINE CATABOLISM
DISORDER OF PYRImIDINE SYNTHESIS
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
SOLVE
CASE HISTORY
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
SECTION 3: BIOCHEMISTRY OF CELLULAR COMMUNICATION
CHAPTER 20:
Mechanism of Hormone Action
Introduction
Classification of Hormones
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
PEPTIDE OR PROTEIN HORMONES
AMINE HORMONES OR AMINO ACID DERIVATIVES
STEROID HORMONES
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION
GROUP I HORMONES
GROUP II HORMONES
MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION
LOCATION OF HORMONE RECEPTORS
TYPES OF MECHANISM OF ACTION
CELL MEMBRANE RECEPTOR MECHANISM
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF CHOLERA TOXIN CHOLERAGEN AND PERTUSSIS
MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION THROUGH SECOND MESSENGER
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF INSULIN
TYROSINE KINASE SECOND MESSENGER (Figure 20.4)
CYTOSOLIC OR NUCLEAR RECEPTOR MECHANISM (Figure 20.5)
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTION (LAQ)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTION (SAQ)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 21:
Neurotransmitters
Introduction
Overview of the Nerve Cell
SYNAPSES
PRESYNAPTIC BOUTON OR KNOB
SYNAPTIC CLEFT
POSTSYNAPTIC MEMBRANE
Classification of Neurotransmitters
MECHANISM OF RELEASE OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS FROM THE NEURONS
EXCITATORY NEUROTRANSMITTERS
INHIBITORY NEUROTRANSMITTERS
REGULATION OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
ACETYLCHOLINE
ACETYLCHOLINE RECEPTORS
CHOLINERGIC AGONISTS AND ANTAGONISTS
CATECHOLAMINES
SEROTONIN OR 5-HYDROXYTRYPTAMINE
GABA (GAMMA AMINOBUTYRIC ACID)
HISTAMINE
GLYCINE
GLUTAMATE
NITRIC OXIDE (NO)
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTION (LAQ)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
SECTION 4: MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
CHAPTER 22:
Replication, Transcription amd Translation
Introduction
Replication (DNA Synthesis)
PROKARYOTIC REPLICATION
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR REPLICATION
STAGES OF REPLICATION
EUKARYOTIC REPLICATION
ORIGIN OF EUKARYOTIC REPLICATION
PROOFREADING IN EUKARYOTES
INHIBITORS OF DNA REPLICATION
DNA REPAIR
REPAIR MECHANISMS
TYPES OF DNA REPAIR SYSTEMS
CELL CYCLE
PHASES OF CELL CYCLE
REGULATION OF CELL CYCLE
TELOMERES (GREEK: TELOS MEANS AN END)
REPLICATION OF LINEAR CHROMOSOMES PRESENT A SPECIAL PROBLEM
TELOMERASE (A SPECIAL POLYMERASE)
MECHANISM OF THE TELOMERE EXTENSION BY TELOMERASE
TELOMERASE AND CELLULAR AGING
TELOMERES AND CLONING
DNA RECOMBINATION
DEFINITION
CLASSIFICATION OF EVENTS OF GENETIC RECOMBINATION
FUNCTIONS OF GENETIC RECOMBINATION SYSTEMS
THE PROCESSES ASSOCIATED WITH GENETIC RECOMBINATION
HOMOLOGOUS GENETIC RECOMBINATION OR GENERAL RECOMBINATION
HOLLIDAY MODEL OF HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION (Figure 22.16)
SITE SPECIFIC RECOMBINATION
DNA TRANSPOSITION
REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION
Transcription (RNA Synthesis)
SIMILARITY AND DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN REPLICATION AND TRANSCRIPTION
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR RNA TRANSCRIPTION
TEMPLATE
SUBSTRATE
ENZYME
STAGES OF TRANSCRIPTION
INITIATION
ELONGATION
TERMINATION
POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL PROCESSING
CLEAVAGE OF LARGE PRECURSOR OF RNA
TERMINAL ADDITION OF NUCLEOTIDES
NUCLEOSIDE MODIFICATION (Figure 22.22)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC TRANSCRIPTION
TRANSCRIPTION IN EUKARYOTES
ROLE OF ENHANCERS AND SILENCERS IN EUKARYOTIC TRANSCRIPTION
EUKARYOTIC POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL RNA PROCESSING
EUKARYOTIC TRANSFER RNA PROCESSING
EUKARYOTIC rRNA PROCESSING
EUKARYOTIC mRNA PROCESSING
5′ CAPPING
ADDITION OF POLY-A TAIL
FUNCTION OF POLY A TAIL
HALF-LIFE OF mRNA
SPLICING
RNA EDITING
GENETIC CODE
CHARACTERISTICS OF GENETIC CODE
WOBBLE HYPOTHESIS FOR CODON-ANTICODON INTERACTIONS
Translation (Protein Biosynthesis)
STAGES OF TRANSLATION
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR THE TRANSLATION OF mRNA INTO A POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN
mRNA
tRNA
RIBOSOME
ACTIVATION OF AMINO ACID
INITIATION (Figure 22.35)
ELONGATION (Figure 22.36)
TERMINATION (Figure 22.36)
The Energy Cost of Protein Biosynthesis
FOLDING AND PROCESSING (POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATION)
AMINO TERMINAL AND CARBOXYL TERMINAL MODIFICATIONS
LOSS OF SIGNAL SEQUENCE
ATTACHMENT OF CARBOHYDRATE SIDE CHAINS
ADDITION OF ISOPRENYL GROUPS
ADDITIONAL PROSTHETIC GROUPS
PROTEOLYTIC PROCESSING
FORMATION OF DISULFIDE CROSS LINKS
INHIBITORS OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
SELENOPROTEIN SYNTHESIS
GENETIC CODON FOR SELENOCYSTEINE
t-RNA FOR SELENOCYSTEINE
FORMATION AND INSERATION OF SELENOCYSTEINE INTO THE PROTEIN
POLYRIBOSOME OR POLYSOME
PROTEIN TARGETING AND DEGRADATION
SECRETORY AND MEMBRANE PROTEIN TARGETING
NUCLEAR AND MITOCHONDRIAL PROTEIN TARGETING
PROTEIN DEGRADATION/PROTEIN TURNOVER
HOW CAN A CELL DISTINGUISH PROTEINS THAT ARE MEANT FOR DEGRADATION?
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTION (LAQ)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 23:
Regulation of Gene Expression and Mutation
Introduction
Regulation of Gene Expression
TYPES OF GENE REGULATION
POSITIVE REGULATION
NEGATIVE REGULATION
TYPES OF GENES
INDUCIBLE GENE
CONSTITUTIVE GENE
LACTOSE OPERON OR LAC OPERON
REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION IN EUKARYOTES
GENE REGULATION AT THE DNA LEVEL
TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION
POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION
TRANSLATIONAL REGULATION
POST-TRANSLATIONAL CONTROL
Mutations
CAUSES OF MUTATIONS
TYPES OF MUTATIONS (FIGURE 23.7)
BASE SUBSTITUTION OR POINT MUTATION
EFFECT OF POINT MUTATION
SILENT MUTATION
MISSENSE MUTATION
FRAME SHIFT MUTATIONS (Figure 23.9)
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 24:
Genetic Engineering
Introduction
Recombinant DNA
ARTIFICIAL RECOMBINANT DNA
CHIMERIC DNA
CONSTRUCTION OF RECOMBINANT DNA
FRAGMENTATION OF DNA (RESTRICTION FRAGMENTS) BY RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASE ENZYME
ISOLATION OF SPECIFIC HUMAN DNA
INSERTION OF ISOLATED HUMAN DNA INTO VECTOR TO FORM CHIMERIC OR HYBRID DNA MOLECULE (Figure 24.3)
JOINING OF TWO DIFFERENT CUT DNA FRAGMENTS BY DNA LIGASE
Cloning
APPLICATIONS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
DNA Library
GENOMIC DNA LIBRARY
COMPLEMENTARY DNA (cDNA) LIBRARY
PROBES
BLOT TRANSFER TECHNIQUES
THE BLOT TRANSFER PROCEDURES (Figure 24.6)
SOUTHERN OR DNA BLOT TRANSFER
NORTHERN OR RNA BLOT TRANSFER
WESTERN OR PROTEIN BLOT TRANSFER
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
APPLICATION OF RFLP
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
EVENTS OF THE PCR (Figure 24.7)
APPLICATIONS OF PCR
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
SECTION 5: CLINICAL BIOCHEMISTRY
CHAPTER 25:
Acid-base Balance
Introduction
ACIDS AND BASES
STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS AND BASES
NORMAL pH OF THE BODY FLUIDS
METABOLIC SOURCES OF ACIDS AND BASES WHICH TEND TO ALTER pH OF THE BODY FLUIDS
METABOLIC SOURCES OF ACIDS
METABOLIC SOURCES OF BASES
Regulatory Mechanisms against Changes in Hydrogen Ion Concentration of Blood
WHAT IS BUFFER?
BUFFER SYSTEMS AND THEIR ROLE IN ACID-BASE BALANCE
BLOOD BUFFER
THE BICARBONATE BUFFER SYSTEM (HCO3−/H2CO3)
THE PHOSPHATE BUFFER SYSTEM (HPO4− −/H2PO4−)
PROTEIN BUFFER
HAEMOGLOBIN BUFFER (KHb/HHb and KHbO2/HHbO2)
RESPIRATORY MECHANISM IN ACID-BASE BALANCE
RENAL MECHANISM IN ACID-BASE BALANCE
EXCHANGE OF H+ FOR Na+ OF TUBULAR FLUID
WHY HYPERKALAEMIA CONTRIBUTES TO ACIDOSIS AND HYPOKALAEMIA TO ALKALOSIS?
REABSORPTION/RECLAMATION OF BICARBONATE FROM TUBULAR FLUID
FORMATION OF AMMONIA AND EXCRETION OF AMMONIUM IONS (NH4+) IN THE URINE
EXCRETION OF H+ IONS AS H2PO4− IN URINE
EXCRETION OF OTHER STRONG ACIDS
Disorders of Acid-base Balance
ACIDOSIS AND ALKALOSIS
METABOLIC ACIDOSIS (PRIMARY ALKALI DEFICIT)
RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS (PRIMARY CO2 or H2CO3 Excess)
METABOLIC ALKALOSIS (PRIMARY ALKALI EXCESS)
RESPIRATORY ALKALOSIS (PRIMARY CO2 or H2CO3 DEFICIT)
MIXED ACID-BASE DISTURBANCES
Anion Gap
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ANION GAP
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (LAQs)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
SOLVE
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
CASE HISTORY
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 26:
Organ Function Tests
Introduction
Liver Function Tests
CLASSIFICATION OF LIVER FUNCTION TESTS
LIVER FUNCTION TESTS BASED ON EXCRETORY FUNCTION
TESTS BASED ON THE DETOXIFICATION FUNCTION
TESTS BASED ON SYNTHETIC FUNCTION
TESTS BASED ON METABOLIC FUNCTION OF LIVER
ENZYMES IN DIAGNOSIS OF LIVER DISEASE
Renal Function Tests
FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEY
ASSESSMENT OF RENAL FUNCTION
COMPONENT PARTS OF THE FUNCTIONAL UNIT, NEPHRON OF THE KIDNEY
GLOMERULUS
PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULES
LOOP OF HENLE
DISTAL TUBULE
COLLECTING TUBULE
CLASSIFICATION OF RENAL FUNCTION TESTS
URINE ANALYSIS
TESTS OF GLOMERULAR FUNCTION
TESTS FOR TUBULAR FUNCTION
Thyroid Function Tests
CLASSIFICATION OF THYROID FUNCTION TESTS
IN VITRO THYROID FUNCTION TESTS
IN VIVO THYROID FUNCTION TESTS
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (LAQs)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 27:
Coronary Heart Disease (CHD), Cardiac Markers and Lipid Profile
Introduction
THE HEART, ITS STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Cardiovascular Diseases
ATHEROSCLEROSIS
ANGINA
ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROME
ACUTE MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION (AMI)
DIAGNOSIS OF ACUTE MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION (AMI)
HEART FAILURE
Cardiac Markers (Cardiac Function Tests)
ANALYTICAL MEASUREMENT OF CARDIAC MARKERS
SELECTION OF ENZYME TESTS
CREATININE KINASE (CK)
LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE (LD) (REFER Chapter 6)
SERUM ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE (AST)/SERUM GLUTAMATE OXALOACETATE TRANSAMINASE (SGOT)
MYOGLOBIN (MB)
CARDIAC TROPONIN
Tests Used to Estimate Increased Risk of Cardiovascular Disease
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (LAQS)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
SOLVE THE FOLLOWING
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 28:
Radioisotopes in Medicines
Introduction
What is Radioactivity
NATURE OF RADIOACTIVITY
ALPHA RAYS
BETA RAYS
GAMMA RAYS
PROPERTIES OF RADIOISOTOPES
PENETRATING ABILITY
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
IONIZATION
UNIT OF RADIOACTIVITY
USES OF RADIOISOTOPES IN MEDICINE
THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS OF RADIOISOTOPES
DIAGNOSTIC APPLICATIONS OF RADIOISOTOPES
Radiation Hazards
SOMATIC RADIATION HAZARDS
IMMEDIATE EFFECTS
DELAYED EFFECTS
GENETIC RADIATION HAZARDS
Radiation Health Safety and Protection
PREVENTION OF EXTERNAL EXPOSURE
PREVENTION OF INTERNAL EXPOSURE
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
SECTION 6: HEALTH, DISEASE AND ENVIRONMENT
CHAPTER 29:
Free Radicals in Health Disease and Antioxidants
Introduction
Formation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
ENZYME REACTIONS IN WHICH FREE RADICALS ARE BY-PRODUCTS
OXIDASES
MONO-OXYGENASES
DIOXYGENASES
ENZYME REACTIONS IN WHICH FREE RADICALS ARE FUNCTIONAL PRODUCTS
INTRACELLULAR SIGNALLING FREE RADICAL
CELLULAR DEFENCE MECHANISM AND RESPIRATORY BURST
RESPIRATORY BURST
EXOGENOUS CAUSES OF FORMATION OF FREE RADICAL
THE MAIN BIOLOGICAL TARGETS FOR ATTACKS BY FREE RADICALS
Antioxidant Defence Mechanism
OXIDATIVE STRESS
ACTION OF ANTIOXIDANT
ENZYMATIC ANTIOXIDANT SYSTEM OR SCAVENGER ENZYMES
NON-ENZYMATIC (NUTRIENTS) ANTIOXIDANT SYSTEM
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 30:
Metabolism of Xenobiotics (Detoxification)
Introduction
DETOXIFICATION AND BIOTRANSFORMATION
Mechanism of Biotransformation of Xenobiotics
PHASE I REACTIONS
OXIDATION
REDUCTION
HYDROLYSIS
PHASE-II REACTIONS: CONJUGATION REACTIONS
CONJUGATION WITH GLUCURONIC ACID
CONJUGATION WITH GLYCINE
CONJUGATION WITH GLUTAMINE
CONJUGATION WITH CYSTEINE
CONJUGATION WITH GLUTATHIONE (GSH)
CONJUGATION WITH SULPHATE (SULFATION)
CONJUGATION WITH ACETIC ACID (ACETYLATION)
CONJUGATION BY METHYLATION
CONJUGATION WITH THIOSULPHATE
CONJUGATION WITH BRITISH ANTILEWISITE (BAL)
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 31:
Cancer
Introduction
Characteristics of Cancer Cells
PROPERTIES OF CANCER CELLS
MORPHOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES OCCUR IN CANCER CELL
NOMENCLATURE OF CANCER
ETIOLOGY OF CANCER
CARCINOGENESIS AND CARCINOGENS
CHEMICAL CARCINOGENS (TABLE 31.1)
PHYSICAL CARCINOGENS
BIOLOGIC CARCINOGENS (TABLE 31.2)
HORMONAL CARCINOGENS
Proto-oncogenes and Oncogenes
Mechanism of Activity of Proto-oncogenes and Role of Growth Factors
ACTION OF GROWTH FACTORS (FIGURE 31.3)
TUMOUR SUPPRESSOR GENES
RETINOBLASTOMA GENE
P53 GENE
IMMUNOLOGIC SURVEILLANCE
APOPTOSIS
Tumour Markers
TYPES OF TUMOUR MARKERS
ONCOFETAL ONCOGENES
HORMONES
CARBOHYDRATE MARKERS
PROTEINS
ENZYMES
CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF TUMOUR MARKERS
CANCER AND DIET
New Concept of Cancer Therapy
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 32:
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
Introduction
Aetiologic Agent
Structure of HIV
Routes of Transmission
Incubation Period
Infection of Host Cell by HIV (Figure 32.2)
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
INITIAL INFECTION
ASYMPTOMATIC CARRIER STATE
AIDS RELATED COMPLEX (ARC)
IMMUNOLOGICAL ABNORMALITIES IN AIDS
Laboratory Diagnosis of AIDS
Management of AIDS
ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY (ART)
REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE INHIBITORS THERAPY (NUCLEOSIDE ANALOGUES)
PROTEASE INHIBITOR THERAPY
HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY (HAART)
DEVELOPMENT OF AIDS VACCINE
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
SHORT NOTES
CHAPTER 33:
Environment and Health
Introduction
Classification of Environment
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
PSYCHO-SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
Environmental Biochemistry
Environmental Pollution
WATER POLLUTION
THE NATURAL IMPURITIES
MANMADE IMPURITIES OR POLLUTANTS
ORGANIC WATER POLLUTANTS
INORGANIC WATER POLLUTANTS
PHYSICAL WATER POLLUTANTS
EFFECT OF WATER POLLUTANT ON HUMAN HEALTH
AIR POLLUTION
DEFINITION OF AIR POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTANTS
CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON HUMAN HEALTH
EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STATE
ACID RAIN
ADVERSE EFFECT OF SOME AIR POLLUTANTS
Metabolic Responses or Adaptations to an Altered Environmental Temperature
HEAT STRESS
THERMOREGULATORY RESPONSES
EFFECTS OF HEAT STRESS
Cold Stress
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (LAQS)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 34:
The Immune System
Introduction
An Overview of the Immune System
ORGANS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
LYMPHOID ORGANS
BONE MARROW
THYMUS
SPLEEN
LYMPH NODES
CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
LYMPHOCYTES
T CELLS
NATURAL KILLER CELLS
B CELLS
GRANULOCYTES OR POLYMORPHONUCLEAR (PMN) LEUCOCYTES
MACROPHAGES
DENDRITIC CELLS
Classification of Immune System
INNATE IMMUNITY (NATURAL OR NATIVE OR NON-SPECIFIC IMMUNITY)
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY (ACQUIRED OR SPECIFIC IMMUNITY)
Types of Defense Mechanisms involved in the Immune System
HUMORAL IMMUNITY
CELLULAR OR CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
INNATE HUMORAL IMMUNE SYSTEM
INNATE CELLULAR OR CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNE SYSTEM
ADAPTIVE/ACQUIRED HUMORAL IMMUNE SYSTEM
B CELL DEVELOPMENT AND FORMATION OF PLASMA CELLS (FIGURE 34.3)
STEPS IN THE B CELL STIMULATION AND SECRETION OF A SINGLE SPECIFIC ANTIBODY
ANTIBODY
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ANTIBODIES
COMPLEMENT SYSTEM FOR ANTIBODY ACTION
CLASSIC PATHWAY
ALTERNATIVE PATHWAY
ADAPTIVE (ACQUIRED) CELLULAR OR CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNE SYSTEM
DEVELOPMENT OF T-LYMPHOCYTES (FIGURE 34.3)
ROLE OF HELPER T CELLS (CD4+ T CELLS)
ROLE OF CYTOTOXIC T CELLS/KILLER CELLS/CD8+ T CELLS)
ROLE OF SUPRESSOR CELLS
Immunological Memory
TYPES OF IMMUNOLOGICAL MEMORY
PASSIVE SHORT-TERM MEMORY
ACTIVE LONG-TERM MEMORY
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY RESPONSE
STRUCTURE OF T CELL RECEPTOR (TCR)
CLUSTER DESIGNATION OR DIFFERENTIATION CELL SURFACE MOLECULES
Histocompatibility Molecules
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
STRUCTURE OF HLA COMPLEX AND ITS PROTEIN PRODUCTS (FIGURE 34.11)
STRUCTURE OF HLA MOLECULES (I AND II) (FIGURE 34.11)
Immunologic Tolerance
SELF TOLERANCE
Disorder of Human Immunity
IMMUNODEFICIENCIES
AUTOIMMUNITY
HYPERSENSITIVITY
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (LAQS)
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 35:
Biomedical Waste Management
Introduction
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
DEFINITION OF BIOMEDICAL WASTE
Hazards of Biomedical/Health Care Waste
CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
DIFFERENT LOCATION OF BIOMEDICALS WASTE GENERATION
TYPES OF HAZARDS
INFECTION
GENOTOXICITY AND CYTOTOXICITY
CHEMICAL TOXICITY
RADIOACTIVITY HAZARDS
PHYSICAL INJURIES
PUBLIC SENSITIVITY
BIOMEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT PROCESS
VARIOUS STEPS IN BIOMEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
IMPORTANCE OF SEGREGATION
STORAGE OF BIOMEDICAL WASTE AFTER SEGREGATION
TRANSPORT
TREATMENT OF BIOMEDICAL WASTE
DISPOSAL OF BIOMEDICAL WASTE
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTION (LAQ)
SHORT NOTES
SECTION 7: BIOCHEMISTRY OF THE TISSUE
CHAPTER 36:
Connective Tissue
Introduction
Basic Components of Connective Tissue
COLLAGEN
STRUCTURE OF COLLAGEN
FORMATION OF COLLAGEN FIBRILS
FORMATION OF CROSS LINKS OF COLLAGEN
EFFECT OF AGING ON COLLAGEN
EFFECT OF COLLAGENASE ON COLLAGEN
ELASTIN
AMINO ACID COMPOSITION OF ELASTIN
CROSS LINKS OF ELASTIN
PROTEOGLYCANS AND GLYCOPROTEINS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES
PROTEOGLYCANS
GLYCOPROTEINS
Disorders of Connective Tissue
OSTEOGENESIS IMPERFECTA
EHLERS-DANLOS SYNDROME
EPIDERMOLYSIS BULLOSA
TYPES
MARFAN'S SYNDROME
SCURVY
SYMPTOMS SEEN IN SCURVY
LATHYRISM
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTION (LAQ)
SHORT NOTES
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
CHAPTER 37:
Muscle
Introduction
Classification of Muscle
STRIATED MUSCLE
SMOOTH MUSCLE
SKELETAL MUSCLE
CARDIAC MUSCLE
VISCERAL STRIATED MUSCLE
STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE (FIGURE 37.1)
MYOFIBRILS AND MYOFILAMENTS
SARCOMERE
PROTEIN COMPOSITION OF MUSCLE FIBRES
CONTRACTILE PROTEIN
REGULATORY PROTEINS
MINOR OR ACCESSORY PROTEINS OF MYOFIBRIL
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
BIOCHEMICAL EVENTS OCCUR DURING MUSCLE CONTRACTION
RIGOR MORTIS
ROLE OF CALCIUM IN MUSCLE CONTRACTION
SOURCE OF ENERGY IN MUSCLE CONTRACTION
ROLE OF MUSCLE GLYCOGEN
ROLE OF OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
ROLE OF CREATINE PHOSPHATE
Muscle Disorders
MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
MOLECULAR BASIS OF MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
DIAGNOSIS
TYPES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBRES
TYPES OF MUSCLE AND ENERGY SOURCES IN SPRINTER AND MARATHON RUNNER
SPRINTER (100 M)
MARATHON RUNNER (42.2 KM OR 26 MILES)
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTION (LAQ)
SHORT NOTES
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
SECTION 8: BASIC ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES IN BIOCHEMISTRY
CHAPTER 38:
Chromatography, Electrophoresis, Photometry and Radioimmunoassay
Introduction
Chromatography
DEFINITION
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PRINCIPLE OF CHROMATOGRAPHIC SEPARATION
APPLICATIONS OF CHROMATOGRAPHY TECHNIQUE
CLASSIFICATION OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)
ADSORPTION CHROMATOGRAPHY
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
AFFINITY CHROMATOGRAPHY
HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY (HPLC)
Electrophoresis
DEFINITION
ELECTROPHORESIS APPARATUS (FIGURE 38.6)
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTROPHORESIS
MOVING BOUNDARY ELECTROPHORESIS
ZONE ELECTROPHORESIS
TYPE OF SUPPORTING MEDIA
PAPER
CELLULOSE ACETATE
AGAR GEL
STARCH GRAINS
POLYACRYLAMIDE GEL
FACTORS AFFECTING MIGRATION AND THE RESOLUTION (SEPARATION)
SELECTION OF PROPER BUFFER
POWER SUPPLY
DENSITOMETRY
TECHNIQUE
CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROPHORESIS
Photometry
PRINCIPLE
DEFINITION OF COLORIMETER
COMPONENTS OF THE COLORIMETER (FIGURE 38.8)
TECHNIQUE
BEER'S LAW
LAMBERT'S LAW
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ABSORBANCE AND TRANSMITTANCE
SELECTION OF FILTER IN COLORIMETRIC ESTIMATION
PREPARATION OF SOLUTION FOR INVESTIGATION
STEPS IN THE OPERATION OF THE COLORIMETER
CALCULATIONS
APPLICATIONS OF COLORIMETER
FLAME PHOTOMETRY
WHAT IS FLAME PHOTOMETRY?
Immunochemical Techniques (RIA and ELISA)
RADIOIMMUNOASSAY (RIA)
PRINCIPAL OF RIA
DISADVANTAGES OF RADIOIMMUNOASSAY
APPLICATIONS OF RADIOIMMUNOASSAY
ELISA (ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY OR ENZYME IMMUNOASSAY)
TECHNIQUE
PRINCIPLE
TYPES OF METHODS OF ELISA
APPLICATIONS OF ELISA
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RIA AND ELISA
Review of the Contents
Review Questions
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (LAQS)
SHORT NOTES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (SAQs)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
CORRECT ANSWERS FOR MCQs
INDEX
TOC
Index
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