Introduction to ResearchCHAPTER 1

Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on observable, empirical and measurable evidence subjected to specific principles of reasoning. Method means a way of doing something or the quality of being well organized. Every science has to use suitable method of investigations in its field of study. Scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and explore questions. Scientists use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships in nature. In other words they design an experiment so that changes in one item cause something else to vary in a predictable way. A scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation, experimentation, formulation and testing of hypotheses.

The scientific method consists of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data.

The main purpose of the scientific method is to make conclusive statement by the investigator about their studies with minimum of bias. Scientific method 3minimizes the influence of personal and biased opinions and therefore the findings are expected to be used by all the members of the scientific community. It is the only way to increase the general body of knowledge and to eliminate biased opinions.

Scientific method is a process, which is used to systematically investigate observations, solve problems and test the hypothesis. It is the most popular tool for pursuing empirical knowledge.

Scientific method consists of series of steps. As the scientific method can be repeated it is called as ‘iterative process’

Scientific method starts with an inquiry about an observed phenomenon. It is used to answer the questions or solve the problem. Words like why or when or how or where or which or who or what can be used during the process of inquiry to identify something that has been observed. The problem or the question should be stated clearly and must be empirically testable. Library and internet can be used to review the available literature which helps to find out the ways to carry out the project.

Hypothesis is an educated guess or the proposed explanation for an observed phenomenon. The hypothesis stated must be measurable and must answer the original question. Hypothesis gives direction for the investigator and helps to eliminate irrelevant facts. It lays the foundation for scientific research.

Hypothesis is subjected to some sort of scrutiny to prove the authencity. Researcher must decide the ways to gather the information from various 4sources. Whatever may be the source the data obtained must be reliable, valid, and representative.

After collecting the data, all the measured values are put together for analysis. It involves statistical manipulations of data. The data are organized and compared through coding, tabulation and cross-tabulation. After data quantification, the experimenter interprets the results and deduces a conclusion.

The results of the experiment and hypothesis must be conveyed to others through a final report. If the observations remain the same even after repetition by various experimenters, then the findings become consistent and paves way for the development of theory.

Research is a scientific method which is all about finding or searching systematically for solutions to problems. It provides guidance and direction to search for facts, principles or solutions and also helps to evaluate the work of others in an organized, systematic manner.

Research is a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem

From these definitions, it is clear that research is a systematic inquiry to find answers or solutions to problems. It develops, refines and expands body of knowledge. Some of the characteristics features of research are:

Research involves carrying out various tasks to answer the questions in a logical and systematic manner. It means carrying out the tasks in accordance with the well-defined set of rules, which are governed by the process of inductive and deductive reasoning. It makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.

The various procedures, methods and techniques used in research are critically scrutinized before hand to prevent untoward happenings during the process of research.

Research is directed towards identifying various solutions to a problem or answers to research questions.

The ultimate goal of research is to develop, refine and expand body of knowledge. It predicts future occurrences which are useful in decision making. It emphasizes the development of generalization of principles or theory.

Research activities are characterized by carefully designed procedures that are relevant, appropriate and justified by applying rigorous analysis.

Research is always based on observable experience or empirical evidence, that is, the conclusions drawn are based upon evidence gathered from real life experiences or observations.

Researcher should be skilled to carry out the project, search the relevant literature to understand what is already known about a phenomenon and identify newer ways to understand and analyze information collected.

Conclusions drawn from the research must be valid and testable. The procedural design should be planned carefully to permit objectivity as far 6as possible so that it is verifiable by the researcher himself or by others later. Thereby, it builds sound basis for decision.

There should be adequate measures to protect the integrity of information gathered from the subjects. Confidentiality and honesty should be maintained in the light of ethics. Research activities should be carefully documented and repeated with scholarly caution and restraints.

Researchers use flexible approaches to get closer to truth or the essence of the phenomena.

Generalizability means the degree to which the research procedures justify the inference that the inference represent something beyond the specific observations on which they are based. The findings that are generated from the sample should be generalizable to the entire population.

The ultimate aim of research is to seek systematic ways of knowing and doing things through the use of scientific procedures. The purposes of research are four fold. They are:

Researchers use scientific methods to discover cause and affect relationship between variables. Research is systematically introspecting and inquiring various ways to solve the problems and gain answers to research questions.

Research helps in systematic and rigorous collection, verification or falsification of findings.

Research involves a method of understanding of phenomena, which relies on measurements and quantification of phenomena of interests. Thus the process of understanding provides newer insights about the phenomenon.

Research is the instrument used to test whether a theory is good or not. Systematically collected and analyzed informations are used to generate or test a theory. Research helps in predicting future occurrences which may be used for decision making or generalization of principles or theories.7

Nursing research is defined as the development of knowledge about health and the promotion of health over full life span, care of persons with health problems and disabilities and nursing actions to enhance the ability of individuals to respond effectively to actual or potential health problems.

Clinical nursing research is the research designed to generate knowledge to guide nursing practice and to improve health and quality of life of nurses' clients.

Nursing is a profession which is accountable for providing quality care to client and families. Quality of nursing care can be improved by providing care based on scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge for practice can be generated through research. The need for nursing research includes the following:

Evidence based practice is the use of best clinical evidence in making patient care decisions. Nurses appropriate to their level of education and position should participate in research activities. Nurses should utilize the best available evidence including research findings to guide and practice decisions. 8In evidence based practice the nurse integrates research findings with clinical experience, the client's preference and available resources in planning and implementing care. Such practice can help control cost by focusing on substantiated yet individualized approaches to care. It is the responsibility of the nurse to be aware of the findings published in the literature, to question practice so the care can be continuously improved. It helps the nurse to participate in investigating better ways to improve health. Thus finding from rigorous studies constitute the best type of evidence for informing nurses' decision, action and interaction with clients.

The knowledge generated through Nursing research is essential:

Relevant up-to-date information improves knowledge and has the potential to facilitate decision-making in matters of client care. Evidence based actions that are clinically appropriate and cost effective will result in positive outcomes for clients. High quality research evidences help nurses to eliminate actions that do not achieve the desired outcome and will help nurses, improve the quality of client care.

Any discipline to be called as a profession, should identify a distinct body of knowledge about the individuals, groups, situations and events of interest to discipline. Nursing as a profession, continues to create a body of knowledge to inform its practice. The accumulation of knowledge on different aspects of nursing constitutes a body of knowledge that nurses and others can use and contribute to progress towards excellence. Knowledge validated by research is the primary determinant of the nursing practice. Nurses increasingly recognize a need for research in nursing as an integral part of professional behavior, to extend the base of body of nursing knowledge as a part of professional responsibility to develop the profession.9

Nursing leaders believe that there is a gap between nursing education and nursing practice. The political climate, non-availability of adequate resources, and inability to meet the demands of increasing population causes a gap to exist between nursing knowledge and its practice. Research acts as a bridge between education and practice. Nurses need to continually question their practice and seek answers. Researches need to be carried out in areas that remain un-researched or under researched. It is the responsibility of the nurse to make use of the findings of research in the areas where the research has been already carried out.

Autonomy is the freedom to decide and act. Autonomy helps a professional nurse to make independent decision about client care. It allows the nurse to plan nursing care within the scope of professional nursing practice. utilization of research findings into practice, enables the nurse to be more knowledgeable and autonomous in their practice by enhancing creativity, productivity and greater client satisfaction.

Research contributes to the improvement of nursing practice by generating theories that can guide nursing actions. Research has theory testing and theory generating potential. Scientific evidence or theories help to enlarge nursing knowledge. The generated knowledge can be applied to practical setting where the actual problems exist. Scientific research helps to generate, refine or enlarge the knowledge in the nursing field. Research is the process by which evidence is provided in order to support, reject or modify theories and develop new ones.

Researches in nursing enables the nurse educators to structure the programme of study, develop course content and design methods of teaching. It is needed to understand and accept the prevailing values of the society. It improves intellectual development and standard of teacher and teaching. It is essential to reform the society and bring about changes in various aspects of education, especially in teaching learning process. It is vital to teachers and students to 10acquire prudence, wisdom, intellectual virtues, theoretical knowledge and skills in the field of clinical situation.

Research can be classified based on the

From the view point of application, the research can be classified as

It is also known as theoretical, pure or fundamental research. It is concerned with development of knowledge in order to add to the existing body of knowledge of research methods. It concerns establishing new knowledge, development and refinement of theories, e.g. developing an instrument, to assess the stress level among working women.

Applied research is also known as action or practical or empirical research. It focuses on finding solutions to existing problems. The research techniques, procedures and methods that form the body of research methodology are applied to the collection of information about various aspects of a situation, issue, problem or phenomenon so that information obtained can be used for policy development, administration and understanding of a phenomenon.

The findings of applied research may pose questions for basic research.

Based on the purposes of the research study, research can be classified as

It describes systematically a situation, problem or phenomenon, service or program or describes an issue as it naturally occurs. The main purpose of such studies is to describe what is prevalent or known about an issue or problem under study.

It ascertains, discovers or establishes the existence of relationship, an association or interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation. e.g. study to find out the relationship between stress and heart attack.

It explains or clarifies why the relationship is formed and why a relationship, association or interdependence exists. It also clarifies why a particular event occurs, e.g. why does smoking leads to lung cancer.

It explores an area, when only little is known or the possibility of undertaking a research on a particular subject. It is conducted to develop, refine and to test measurement tools and procedures.

It evaluates the performance of the program that has already been implemented and it also assesses the impact of such programs. The evaluation is carried out with respect to the objectives of the program. It not only evaluates the performance but also stimulates the performance, gives direction and control as and when possible.12

Based on the mode of inquiry employed, the research can be classified as:

It is also known as post-positivist, interpretive, constructivist and naturalistic research. It makes use of unstructured, flexible or open methodology. It determines the nature of the phenomenon, situation or an issue as it naturally occurs. Qualitative research allows flexibility in all aspects of research process as objectives, design, sampling, data collection, analysis and communication of the findings. The researchers of qualitative studies are not primarily interested in measuring the variables, but rather in identifying variables that help explain a problem or reason for success.

Quantitative research is also termed as positivist, experimental or empiricist approach to research. It employs more structured, rigid or pre-determined methodology. Quantitative researchers specify the nature of any intervention, comparisons to be made, methods to control extraneous variables, data collection timing, the study setting and the information to be given to the participants, all before the data is collected. Modifications are rarely instituted in quantitative research. It is the most appropriate method to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon.

Roles are the functions or positions that are expected from a person, to have in an organization, or in the society or in a relationship. Nurses play a vital role in creating a body of knowledge for nursing and using it to inform practice. Research is essential to create a body of knowledge. The role of nurses in research depends on education, training, personal values, belief and position of the nurse within an organization.

Consumer: A person who uses a service or buys a good is called as consumer. As consumers of nursing research, nurses should read research report to develop new skills. Nurses should gain up-to-date information and apply those relevant findings in practice to improve the quality of nursing care.

Utilizer: Utilization of research findings by nurses in practice depends upon the knowledge, training and position of the nurse. Nurses should seek out 13and critically evaluate published research studies and utilize the findings in practice setting. Allow the nursing research consumers to utilize nursing research findings to optimum.

Producers: As producers of nursing research, nurses are responsible for raising problems and questions for research. Nurses should actually participate in designing and implementing research studies. Co-operatively collaborate with other members in the development of an idea for a clinical research project. Evaluate the completed research. Communicate and share with others the completed task and use it when appropriate.

Certain personality types or characteristics help make some people more successful. This is true about researchers also. Desirable qualities of a good researcher are

Scientific methods are the means by which researcher can make conclusive statements about their studies. As researches are scientific in nature they provide deeper understanding and development of concepts. Research in nursing helps to improve the quality of care by developing theories that can guide nursing actions, facilitate decision making and foster evidence based health care.

Science is a means of gathering or constructing certain kind of knowledge. Science is generally used to predict the things in future. Scientific method is a process, which is used to systematically investigate observations, solve problems and test the hypothesis. Research is a scientific method that uses scientific and systematic way of finding solutions to the research problems. It helps to define, refine and expand body of knowledge. Research in nursing provides scientific basis for practice. It enhances professional development and quality of care.14