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Research Methodology in Nursing
Nirmala V, J Silvia Edison
CHAPTER 1:
Introduction to Research
INTRODUCTION
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Definitions of Scientific Method
Purpose of Scientific Method
Characteristics of Scientific Method
Steps of Scientific Method
Formulate the Problem
Construct a Hypothesis
Test the Hypothesis
Analyze and Interpret the Data
Communicate the Findings
RESEARCH
Definitions of Research
Characteristics of Good Research
1. Systematic and Logical
2. Critical Scrutiny
3. Answer Research Questions
4. Expands Body of Knowledge
5. Rigorous Analysis
6. Empirical Evidence
7. Require Expertise
8. Valid and Verifiable
9. Confidentiality
10. Flexibility
11. Generalizability
Purposes of Research
Finding Solutions to Problems
Systematic and Rigorous
New Insights into Phenomena
Create or Test Theory
NURSING RESEARCH
Definitions of Nursing Research
Clinical Nursing Research
Need for Nursing Research
Decision Making
Scientific Basis for Practice
Improves Quality of Client Care
Professional Development
Fills the Gap between Education and Practice
Fosters Autonomy, Accountability and Commitment
Generates, Refines or Enlarges Nursing Knowledge
Improve the Quality of Nursing Education
CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH (Fig. 1.1)
Application
Basic Research
Applied Research
Purposes
Descriptive Research
Correlational Research
Explanatory Research
Exploratory Research
Evaluation Research
Mode of Inquiry Employed
Qualitative or Unstructured Approach
Quantitative Research or Structured Approach
ROLES OF NURSE IN RESEARCH
QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHER
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 2:
Research Process
INTRODUCTION
TERMINOLOGY
Research Process
RESEARCH PROCESS IN QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
Step: I: Identify and Formulate the Research Problem
Step II: Review of Relevant Literature
Step III: Develop a Framework
Step IV: Conceptualize a Research Design
Step V: Develop an Instrument for Data Collection
Step. VI: Select the Sampling Plan
Step VII: Finalize and Review the Research Plan
Step VIII: Collect Data
Step IX: Process the Data
Step X: Summarize and Disseminate the Findings
RESEARCH PROCESS IN QUALITATIVE STUDIES
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 3:
Research Problem
INTRODUCTION
TERMINOLOGIES
SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
Experience
Nursing Literature
Social Issues
Political Climate
Theories
Ideas from External Sources
Intuition
Research
Brainstorming
Practical Needs
Empirical Interest
Popular Conceptions
CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM
STEPS IN THE FORMULATION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM
Identify a Broad Field or Subject Area of Interest
Dissect the Broad Area into Subareas
Select and State the Problem
Understand the Nature of the Problem
Survey the Available Literature
Develop Ideas through Discussion
Formulate and Assess Objectives
Rephrase and Double Check the Research Problem
COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM
FORMATS OF FORMATTING PROBLEM
Declarative Statement
Interrogative Statement
Hypothetical Statement
EVALUATING RESEARCH PROBLEM
Significance
Researchability
Feasibility
Interest to the Researcher
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 4:
Review of Literature
INTRODUCTION
TERMINOLOGY
PURPOSES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
FUNCTIONS
TYPES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
Embedded Review
Free-standing
CRITERIA OF A LITERATURE REVIEW
DATABASES FOR LITERATURE REVIEW
Electronic Databases
Cochrane
CINAHL Database
MEDLARS
MEDLINE
ERIC Program
Combined Health Information Database (CHID)
Print Resources
SOURCES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
Primary Source
Secondary Source
Journals
Books
Conference Proceedings
Government or Corporate Reports
Newspapers
Thesis and Dissertations
Internet
CD-ROM
Magazines
Guide to library
Abstracts
Research Reports
News Letters, Pamphlets and Leaflets
STEPS OF LITERATURE REVIEW (Fig. 4.1)
Search for Sources
Manual Search
Computer Search
Locate the Sources
Organize the Identified Sources
Record References Systematically
Review the Selected Literature
Synthesizing Findings from Relevant Studies
Organize the Reviewed Literature
Write the Literature Review
ADVANTAGES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5:
Conceptual Framework
INTRODUCTION
TERMINOLOGIES
QUALITIES OF A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
STEPS OF CONSTRUCTING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Select and Define the Concepts
Develop Relational Statement
Construct a Conceptual Map Expressing the Framework
KEY ELEMENTS OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
1. Caring
Humankind
Environment
2. Critical Thinking
Research
Legal/Ethical/Political Dimensions
3. Communication
Information Processing
Teaching-Learning
4. Professional Practice
Health Promotion
Management
MAJOR CONCEPTS OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK IN NURSING
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6:
Hypothesis and Variables
INTRODUCTION
VARIABLES
Terminology
Variable
Classification of Variables (Fig. 6.1)
Based on Form of Presentation
Numerical Variable
Non-numerical Variable
Based on Causal Relationship (Fig. 6.2)
Based on Design of the Study (Fig. 6.3)
HYPOTHESIS
Definitions of Hypothesis
Characteristics of a Hypothesis
State the Relationship between Variables
Clarity
Uni-dimensional
Justifiable
Testable or Verifiable
Simple and Brief
Related to Body of Knowledge and Theory
It should be Operationalizable
Functions of Hypothesis
Types of Hypothesis (Fig. 6.4)
Based on the Origin, Hypothesis can be Classified as Inductive and Deductive Hypothesis
Inductive Hypothesis
Deductive Hypothesis
Based on the Formulation, the Hypothesis can be Classified as Research and Null Hypothesis
Research Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
Based on the Anticipated Relationship, the Hypothesis can be Classified as Directional and Non-directional Hypothesis
Directional Hypothesis
Non-directional Hypothesis
Based on the Complexity, the Hypothesis can be Classified as Simple and Complex Hypothesis
Simple Hypothesis
Complex Hypothesis
Based on the Cause and Effect Relationship, the Hypothesis is Classified as Associative and Causal Hypothesis
Associative Hypothesis
Causal Hypothesis
Components of a Hypothesis
Steps in the Formulation of Hypothesis
Deriving a Hypothesis
Identifying the Independent and Dependent Variables in Hypothesis
Stating the Hypothesis
Tips for the Formulation of Hypothesis
Advantages of Hypothesis
Limitation of Hypothesis
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 7:
Research Design
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITIONS
Design
Research Design
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN
PURPOSES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Researcher's Knowledge
Researcher's Experience
Availability of Time
Availability of Resources
Availability of Subjects
Nature of the Phenomenon being Studied
Precision Required
Ethical Consideration
Degree of Control
CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN (Fig. 7.1)
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Experimental Research Design
Experiment
Experimental Design
Characteristics of a True Experiment
Methods of Control
Steps involved in Experimental Design
Types of Experimental Designs
True or Classical Experimental Design
Types
Quasi-experimental Design
Features of Quasi-experimental Design
Types
Pre-experimental Design
Types
Evaluation of Experimental Research Design
Major Threats to Internal Validity
Major Threats to External Validity or Generalizability
Ways to Control Factors that Threaten Validity
Non-experimental Research Designs
Reasons for Undertaking Non-experimental Studies
Types of Non-experimental Research Design (Fig. 7.3)
1. Descriptive Study Designs
Survey
Cross-sectional survey
Longitudinal survey
Descriptive survey
Exploratory survey
Explanatory survey
Comparative survey
Evaluative survey
Correlational survey
Advantages
Disadvantages
Simple descriptive design (typical descriptive design)
Advantages
Disadvantages
Comparative descriptive design
Advantages
Disadvantages
Developmental descriptive designs
Cross-sectional studies
Longitudinal design
Trend studies
Cohort studies
Panel studies
Retrospective studies
Prospective studies
Advantages
Disadvantages
2. Correlational Design
Types
Simple correlation studies
Prediction studies
Simple predictive studies
Multiple regressions
Advantages
Disadvantages
3. Comparative Study Design
Ex-post facto studies
Correlation causal comparative
Advantages
Disadvantages
4. Other Quantitative Research Designs
Blind studies
Double blind studies
Case studies
Natural experiments
Path analytic studies
Case-control studies
Need assessment
Secondary analysis
Delphi surveys
Methodologic research
Meta analysis
Evaluation research
QUALITATIVE STUDY DESIGNS
Features of Qualitative Design
Phases of Qualitative Design
Orientation and Overview
Focused Exploration
Confirmation and Closure
Types of Qualitative Research design are
1. Ethnography
2. Phenomenology
3. Grounded Theory
4. Historical Research
Steps of Historical Research (Fig. 7.4)
Collection of data
Evaluation of data
Analysis and interpretation of data
Advantages
Disadvantage
5. Narrative Analysis
6. Qualitative Outcome Analysis
7. Secondary Analysis
8. Descriptive Qualitative Studies
ADVANTAGES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 8:
Sampling
INTRODUCTION
TERMINOLOGIES
POPULATION
SAMPLE
SAMPLING PROCESS
METHODS OF SAMPLING (Fig. 8.2)
Probability or Random Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Methods of drawing a random sample
1. Fish bowl method/ Lottery method
2. A table of random numbers
3. Computer program
Cluster and Area Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling or Fixed Interval Method/Quasi- Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Multiphase Sampling
Non-probability or Non-Random Methods
Convenient Sampling
Quota Sampling
Snow-ball Sampling
Purposive Sampling
FACTORS INFLUENCING SAMPLING
SAMPLING BIAS
SAMPLING ERRORS AND NON-SAMPLING ERRORS
ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING
LIMITATIONS OF SAMPLING
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 9:
Ethics in Research
INTRODUCTION
TERMINOLOGIES
NEED FOR ETHICS IN RESEARCH
NEED FOR ETHICS IN NURSING RESEARCH
POTENTIAL BENEFITS AND RISKS OF RESEARCH TO PARTICIPANTS
Benefits
Risks
HUMAN RIGHTS
WAYS TO PROTECT HUMAN RIGHTS IN RESEARCH
Promotion of the Rights of Participants
Informed Consent
Privacy, Anonymity and Confidentiality
Precaution and Risk Minimization
Beneficence
Justice
Non-exploitation
Transparency
Avoid Bias
Use Appropriate Research Methodology
ETHICS COMMITTEES
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 10:
Data Collection
INTRODUCTION
TERMINOLOGIES
DATA
Forms of Data
Sources of Data
DATA COLLECTION
Purposes of Data Collection
Methods of Data Collection
Observation
Types of Observation
Unstructured observation
Structured observation
Naturalistic observation
Participant observation
Non-participant observation
Steps in Developing an Observation Schedule
Questioning as a Method of Data Collection
Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire
Types of Questions
Steps in Developing a Questionnaire
Establishing the Reliability of the Instrument
Construction of a Questionnaire
Ways of Administering the Questionnaire
Interview
Types of Interview
Planning and Conducting Interview
Measurements
Types of Measurements
a. Physiological Measurement
b. Psychological Measurements
c. Sociological Measurements
Others
Record Analysis
Warranty Cards
Projective Techniques
Life Histories
Oral histories
Critical incidents
Mechanical devices
Data Collection Procedure
Selection of Subjects
Collecting Data
Maintaining Control
Protecting the Study Integrity
Solving Problems
Six ‘W's of Data Collection
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 11:
Pilot Study
INTRODUCTION
TERMINOLOGY
Pilot Study
REASONS FOR CONDUCTING PILOT STUDY
OBJECTIVE OF PILOT STUDY
PROCEDURE
ADVANTAGES OF PILOT STUDY
PROBLEMS OF PILOT STUDIES
Problems Arising from Contamination
Problems Related to Funding
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 12:
Computer in Research
INTRODUCTION
TERMINOLOGIES
COMPUTER
Hardware
Software
Operating System
INTERNET
Internet Search Engines
COMPUTER AND RESEARCH
INTERNET AND RESEARCH
Online Encyclopedias
COMPUTER IN DIFFERENT RESEARCH PHASES
Role of Computer in Phase I
Databases for Nursing Research
Full-text Journals on the Internet
Searchable Databases on the Internet
Nursing Research Internet Sites
Organizations Providing Resources for Nurses
Online Reference Books
Role of Computer in Phase II
Role of Computer in Phase III
Role of Computer in Phase IV
Role of Computer in Phase V
Tips for Searching Using Google
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 13:
Processing, Analysis, Interpretation and Presentation of Data
INTRODUCTION
TERMINOLOGY
Data Processing
Types of Data Processing
Steps
PROCESSING OF DATA
I. Editing
Types of Editing
II. Organization of Data
III. Coding
ANALYSIS OF DATA
Descriptive Statistics
1. Frequency Distribution
2. Measures of Central Tendency
3. Measures of Dispersion
Inferential Statistics
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
PRESENTATION OF DATA
Methods of Presentation of Data
Types of Tables
Uni–variate (Table 13.2)
Bi–variate (Table 13.3)
Multivariate (Table 13.4)
Points to be Kept in Mind While Making Tables
Figures
Charts
Map
Drawings
Graphs
Scatter Plots (Fig. 13.1)
Line Graph (Fig. 13.2)
Bar Graph (Fig. 13.3)
Histogram (Fig. 13.4)
Circle Graph (Fig. 13.5)
Points to be Kept in Mind While Making Figures
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 14:
Communicating Research
INTRODUCTION
Terminology
STRATEGIES FOR COMMUNICATION OF RESEARCH
WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Terminology
Functions
Structural Elements of the Research Proposal
Title
Abstract
Statement of the Problem
Need and Significance of the Study
Background of the Problem
Objectives of the Study
Hypothesis
Conceptual Framework
Definition of the Terms
Research Method
Work Plan
Ethical Issues
Data Analysis Plan
Problems and Limitations
Appendix
Skills Needed
Technical Editing of Research Proposal
Advantages
Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing
WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
Terminology
Content of Research Report
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
References
Steps of Report Writing
Decide on the Content
Develop an Outline
Prepare the Draft
Rewrite and Finalize the Draft
Types of Research Report
Theses and Dissertations
Journal Articles
Conference Papers for Professional Meetings
Reports to Funding Agencies
Research Posters
Abstracts
Manuscript Preparation of a Scientific Article or Paper
Preparation of Thesis, Dissertations and Student Papers
Contents
Material for Oral Presentation
CONCLUSIONS
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 15:
Research Utilization
INTRODUCTION
RESEARCH UTILIZATION
Definition
Types of Research Utilization
Stages in Research Utilization
Preparatory Stage
Decision-making Stage
Implementation Stage
Evaluation Stage
Barriers to Research Utilization
Barriers Relating to Research
Personal Barriers
Administration Barriers
Strategies to Facilitate Research Utilization
Strategies to Overcome Barriers Relating to Research
Strategies to Overcome Personal Barriers
Strategies to Overcome Administration Barriers
GUIDELINES FOR CRITIQUE OF RESEARCH ARTICLE
Critique
Dimensions of Research Critique
Substantive and Theoretical Dimensions
Methodologic Dimensions
Ethical Dimensions
Interpretive Dimensions
Presentation and Stylistic Dimensions
Format for Research Critique
Title
Research Problem
Review of Literature
Objective
Variables
Hypothesis
Theoretical Framework
Methodology
Design
Sample
Data Collection
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Results
Discussion and Conclusion
Ethical Considerations
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
Glossary
INDEX
TOC
Index
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