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Biochemistry and Nutrition for BSc (Nursing)
Manjula Shantaram
CHAPTER 1:
Introduction
MOLECULAR COMPOSITION OF CELL
Water
Organic Compounds
Inorganic Compounds
Eukaryotic Cell Structure and Function
Subcellular Organelles and their Functions
CELL MEMBRANE
Structure
Functions
NUCLEUS
Structure
Functions
NUCLEOLUS
Structure and Function
CYTOSOL/CYTOPLASM OR CELL SAP
Structure
Functions
MITOCHONDRIA
Structure
Functions
LYSOSOMES
Structure
Functions
Biological Importance
PEROXISOMES
Structure
Functions
Biological Importance
CYTOMEMBRANES
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Structure
Functions
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Structure
Functions
GOLGI BODIES (FIG. 1.2.7)
Structure
Functions
Biological Importance
Vacuoles
Cell Coat
CYTOSKELETONS (FIG. 1.2.8)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essay
Short Essays
Short Answers
Optical Microscopes
The Components of the Microscope
How a Microscope Works?
Optical Path in a Typical Microscope
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Short Essays
CHAPTER 2:
Structure and Functions of Cell Membrane
CYTOSKELETON
Simple Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion (Fig. 2.2.2)
Active Transport
Sodium Pump
Endocytosis
Osmosis
Experiment
Definition
Physiological Importance
Application of Osmosis
Filtration
Filtration in Kidney
Dissociation of Water
pH
Buffer
Factors Affecting pH of a Buffer
Mechanism of Action
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
Applications of Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
Buffering Capacity
Maintenance of Acid-Base Balance
Bicarbonate Buffer
Alkali Reserve
Advantages of Bicarbonate Buffer
Disadvantages of Bicarbonate Buffer
Phosphate Buffer (HPO4–2/ H2PO4–)
Advantages
Disadvantages
Protein Buffers (Pr–/HPr)
Regulation of pH by Regulating H2CO3 Levels
Advantages
Disadvantages
Excretion of CO2 by Lungs
Mechanism
Renal Mechanisms (Role of Kidneys in Acid-base Balance)
Acidification of Urine
Acidification of Urine: Excretion of H+
Bicarbonate Mechanism
Phosphate Mechanism
In Urine
Ammonia Mechanism
SUMMARY
Disturbances in Acid-Base Balance
Acidosis
Alkalosis
Serum Potassium Levels in Acidosis and Alkalosis
In Acidosis
In Alkalosis
Metabolic Acidosis
Causes
Laboratory Findings
Compensatory Mechanisms
Respiratory Acidosis
Causes
Laboratory Findings
Compensatory Mechanisms
Steps for Treatment of Acidosis
Metabolic Alkalosis
Causes
Biochemical Findings
Compensatory Mechanisms
Secondary Compensation by Kidneys
Respiratory Alkalosis
Causes
Biochemical Findings
Mechanism
Anion Gap
Significance of Anion Gap
Normal Range of Human Serum Electrolytes
SUMMARY
Cases of Acid-Base Imbalance (Uncompensated)
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essays
Short Essays
Short Answers
Distribution of Electrolytes
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
CHAPTER 3:
Composition and Metabolism of Carbohydrates
MONOSACCHARIDES
Common Monosaccharides
ISOMERISM
D and L Isomers
Epimers
Anomers
Mutarotation
REACTIONS OF MONOSACCHARIDES
1. Oxidation
2. Reduction
3. Dehydration
4. Esterification
5. Enediol Formation or Tautomerization
6. Reducing Properties
Benedict's Test
7. Osazone Formation
8. Glycosides
9. Amino Sugars
10. Deoxy Sugars
DISACCHARIDES
1. Maltose (C12H22O11)
2. Lactose
Sucrose
Inversion of Sugar
Invert Sugar
Polysaccharides
Homopolysaccharides
1. Starch
2. Dextrins
3. Inulin
4. Glycogen
5. Cellulose
Heteropolysaccharides
Functions of Heteropolysaccharides
Glycoproteins
Proteoglycans
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essays
Short Essays
Short Answers
Digestion and Absorption from Gastrointestinal Tract
Definition
1. Passive Transport
2. Active Transport
Digestion of Carbohydrates
Digestion by Gastric Juice
Digestion by Pancreatic Juice
Digestion by Intestinal Juice
Digestion of Disaccharides by Disaccharidases
Absorption of Monosaccharides
Abnormalities of Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
INTRODUCTION
Glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof pathway)
Importance
Glycolytic Pathway
Reactions of Aerobic Glycolysis
Regulation of Glycolysis
Energetics of Glycolysis
Rapoport-Luebering Cycle (BPG Shunt)
Pathway
Significance
TCA CYCLE (KREBS CYCLE, TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE, CITRIC ACID CYCLE)
Significance
Features
Sources of Acetyl CoA
Reactions
Energy Liberating Steps
Reactions of TCA Cycle
Amphibolic Role of TCA Cycle
Anaplerosis
GLUCONEOGENESIS
Significance of Gluconeogenesis
Reactions
Reactions
Cori's Cycle (Lactic Acid Cycle)
Glucose – Alanine Cycle (Gluconeogenesis from Alanine)
Gluconeogenesis from Amino Acids
Gluconeogenesis from Glycerol
Gluconeogenesis from Propionate
Gluconeogenesis from Fat
Regulation of Gluconeogenesis
GLYCOGEN METABOLISM
Glycogenesis (Synthesis of Glycogen)
Steps Involved in Glycogenesis
Glycogenolysis
Regulation of Glycogen Metabolism
Covalent Modification
Glycogen Storage Diseases
HMP SHUNT (HEXOSE MONOPHOSPHATE) PATHWAY
Significance
Pathway
Oxidative Phase
Regulation
URONIC ACID PATHWAY
Significance
Essential Pentosuria
Metabolism of Fructose
Synthesis
Catabolism
Errors of Metabolism of Fructose
Metabolism of Galactose
Functions
Synthesis of Galactose from Glucose
Catabolism: In Liver
Inborn Error
Symptoms
Determination of Glucose in Body Fluids (Blood, urine and cerebrospinal fluid)
Sample Collection and Processing
Fasting (FBS)
Postprandial (PPBS)
Random (RBS)
Glucose Tolerance Tests (GTT)
Indications for GTT
Preparation of the Patients
Factors Affecting GTT
Method
INTERPRETATION
Normal Glucose Tolerance Curve
Abnormal Glucose Tolerance Response
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essays
Short Essays
Short Answers
CHAPTER 4:
Composition and Metabolism of Lipids
INTRODUCTION
Functions of Lipids
Clinical Applications
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
FATTY ACIDS
Nomenclature
Classification of Fatty Acids
Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs)
Functions of Essential Fatty Acids
Deficiency of Essential Fatty Acids
Distribution of Fatty Acids in Human Fat
Functions
Leukotrienes
Isomerism of Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Cis Trans Isomerism (Geometric isomerism)
Significance of Cis-trans Isomerism
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. Salt Formation
Significance
2. Hydrogenation
3. Esterification
Significance of Esterification
4. Halogenation
Significance
5. Oxidation
Significance
Alcohols Present in Lipids
Functions of Cholesterol
Characteristic Features
Bile Acids
Primary Bile Acids
Secondary Bile Acids
Bile Salts
Higher Monohydroxy Alcohols
Triacylglycerols (TAG)/Neutral Fats/Triglycerides (TG)
Chemical Properties
Saponification
Hydrolysis
Hydrogenation of Fats
Rancidity
Peroxidation
Characterization of Fats
1. Saponification Number
2. Iodine Number
Liposomes
Functions
Sphingolipids
Glycolipids have Three Major Classes
Lipotropic Factors
Functions of Phospholipids
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essays
Short Essays
Short Notes
Stages of Lipid Digestion
Digestion in the Stomach
Digestion in the Intestine
Action of Bile Salts, Pancreatic Lipase and Co-lipase
Pancreatic Co-lipase
Breakdown of Emulsified Fat
Alkaline Phosphatase (phosphoesterase)
Circulation
Absorption of Lipids by Enterocytes
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
FATTY ACID OXIDATION
I. Fatty Acid Activation
II. Transport of Fatty Acids into Mitochondria
Steps
III. β - Oxidation Proper
Summary of β - Oxidation of Palmitoyl CoA
Energetics of Palmitic Acid Oxidation
Regulation of β-Oxidation
DE NOVO (NEW, TOTAL) SYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACIDS
Extramitochondrial Pathway
Enzymes of FAS Complex
Reactions
Regulation of Fatty Acid Synthesis
Energetics of Fatty Acid Synthesis
Regulation of Fatty Acid Synthesis
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essays
Short Essays
Short Answer
Fat Metabolism in Adipose Tissue
Synthesis of Triglycerides (TAG)
Synthesis of Triacylglycerol
ACTION OF HORMONES ON LIPOLYSIS
Fate of Glycerol
Fate of Free Fatty Acids
Role of Lipoprotein Lipase
Deposition of TAG
Obesity
Fatty Liver
Lipotropic Factors
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essay
Short Essays
Short Answer
Cholesterol Biosynthesis
Synthesis of Squalene
Squalene to Cholesterol
Cholesterol Transport
Atherosclerosis
Regulation of Cholesterol Biosynthesis
FORMATION OF BILE SALTS
VITAMIN D
Structure
Source
RDA
Absorption, Transport and Storage
Synthesis of Biologically Active form of Vitamin D or Calcitriol
Regulation of Activation of Calcitriol
Functions
Calcitriol Acts on
Deficiency
Toxicity
Synthesis of Steroid Hormones
Estimation of Cholesterol
Clinical Significance
Clinical Significance
Normal Range of HDL
Reduced HDL levels are seen in:
LDL Cholesterol
Clinical Significance
Estimation of LDL Cholesterol and VLDL Cholesterol
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essay
Short Essay
Short Answers
LIPOPROTEINS
Composition and Functions of Lipoproteins
Apolipoproteins/Apoproteins
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essay
Short Essay
Short Answer
1. Ketogenesis (Synthesis of ketone bodies)
Formation of Ketone Bodies
2. Ketolysis (Breakdown of ketone bodies)
3. Ketosis (Accumulation of ketone bodies in blood)
Causes for Ketosis
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
Ketone Body Formation and Export from the Liver
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essay
Short Essays
Short Answers
CHAPTER 5:
Composition and Metabolism of Amino Acids and Proteins
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS
I. Based on Structure (of the side chain or R - group)
II. Based on Number of -NH2 and – COOH group present
III. Based on Net Charge at Neutral pH (7.0)
IV. Based on polarity
V. Based on Nutritional Requirement
VI. Based on Metabolic Fate
Non-Standard Amino Acids
Properties of Amino Acids
A. Physical Properties
Different Forms of Amino Acids
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
I. Reactions due to Carboxyl Groups
II. Reactions due to Amino Group
III. Formation of Carbamino Compounds
IV. Ninhydrin Reaction
V. Reactions due to Side Chains
VI. Peptide Bond Formation
PROTEINS
Classification of Proteins
Protein Structure (Conformation)
1. Primary Structure (covalent structure) of Insulin
2. Secondary Structure
Features
Features
Bonds Responsible for Protein Structure
Non-covalent Bonds
Covalent Bonds
Physical Properties of Proteins
Biological Importance of Denaturation
Sanger's Reagent
Principle
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essays
Short Essays
Short Answers
DIGESTION
PROENZYMES
Stages of Protein Digestion
Site of Action of Pepsin
Functions of HCl
Abnormal Conditions of Hydrochloric Acid Secretion
Site of Action
Site of Action
Site of Action
Digestion of Proteins - Specificity of Enzymes— Cleavages of Peptide Bonds
Abnormalities Related to Digestion of Absorption of Proteins
Absorption
Absorption of Amino Acids
MECHANISM
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Nitrogen Balance
Sources
Catabolism of Amino Acids
Transdeamination
Transamination
Mechanism of Transamination
Clinical Importance of Transaminases
Deamination
A. Oxidative Deamination
B. Non-Oxidative Deamination
Other Ways of NH3 formation
Transport Forms of NH3
Detoxification of NH3 (Fate of NH3)
Hyperammonemia (NH3 toxicity)
UREA CYCLE (ORNITHINE CYCLE)
Sources of Atoms in Urea
Biosynthesis of Urea
Reactions (steps)
Regulation (Allosteric)
Overall Equation
Energetics
RELATION BETWEEN UREA AND TCA CYCLES “UREA BICYCLE”
Disorders of Urea Cycle (Inborn errors)
Management
Decarboxylation of Amino Acids
Catabolism of Carbon Skeleton of Amino Acids
GLYCINE METABOLISM
I. Protein synthesis
II. Catabolism
III. Conversion to Biologically Important Compounds
Steps
Synthesis
Functions of Glutathione G - SH
IV. Inborn Errors (Disorders)
Metabolic Fates of Phenyl Alanine and Tyrosine
Reasons
Diagnostic Tests in Urine
Defects in Tyrosine Catabolism
Tryptophan Metabolism
I. Catabolism: Kynurenine Pathway
Metabolic Fates of Tryptophan
II. Conversion to Biologically Important Compounds
Functions
Indole Compounds
III. Inborn Errors of Tryptophan Metabolism
Estimation of Proteins
Albumin
Clinical Importance
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essays
Short Essays
Short Answers
The Central Dogma
Translation
Why Translation?
Translation in Eukaryotes
Requirements
Process of Translation
Activation
Transfer of Amino Acid to tRNA
Translation
Details of These Steps
Stage I: Initiation
Stage II: Elongation of Polypeptide: Binding of Income Aminoacyl-tRNa
Stage III: Termination
Inhibitors of Protein Synthesis
Post-translational Modifications
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essay
Short Essays
Short Notes
CHROMATOGRAPHY
ELECTROPHORESIS
Electrophoretic Separation of Serum Proteins
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Determining Amino Acid Composition
Hydrolysis
Separation
Quantitative Analysis
N-terminal Amino Acid Analysis
C-terminal Amino Acid Analysis
Edman Degradation
The Edman Degradation Reaction
Limitations of the Edman Degradation
Mass Spectrometry
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Short Essays
Associations
Regulation
Chlorophyll and Photosynthesis
Chlorosis
INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION
Biologic Catalysts
General Properties
Location
Substrate and Products
Classification of Enzymes and Nomenclature
Classification of Enzymes
ENZYME CATALYSIS
Introduction
Mechanism of Enzyme Action
Activation Energy (Fig. 5.9.1)
Activation Energy Curve
Reaction Equilibrium
Enzymes in the Body
MICHAELIS - MENTEN THEORY
Mode of Action of Enzymes (Fig. 5.9.3)
Template Hypothesis of Fischer (Fig. 5.9.4)
Features of the Model
INDUCED FIT THEORY
Features of the Model
Active Site (Fig. 5.9.6)
Salient Features
Substrate - Binding Site
ACTIVE SITE OF LYSOZYME
Lysozyme
Enzyme Specificity
Reaction and Substrate Specificity
Broad Substrate and Group Specificity
Mechanisms of Catalysis
Covalent Catalysis
Metal Ion Catalysis
Transition State Stabilization
Abzymes
ENZYME KINETICS
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
Effect of Substrate Concentration (Fig. 5.9.8)
Michaelis-Menten Equation
Propositions of the Equation
Michaelis-Menten Constant
Michaelis-Menten Plot
Double-Reciprocal Plot
Rearrangement of M-M Equation
Lineweaver-Burk Plot (Fig. 5.9.10)
Michaelis-Menten Plot and Order of Reaction (Fig. 5.9.12)
Zero Order Reaction
Sigmoid Kinetics
Enzyme Inhibition
Reversible Inhibition
Competitive Inhibition
Plots - Competitive Inhibition (Fig. 5.9.17)
Non-competitive Inhibition
Uncompetitive Inhibition
Irreversible Inhibition
Suicide Inhibition
Mechanism-based Inactivation
Regulatory Properties of Enzymes
Classes of Regulatory Enzymes
Features
Irreversible Covalent Activation
Co-enzymes
Classification
Functions
Ribozymes
Significance
Isoenzymes
Transaminases
5’-Nucleotidase
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essays
Short Essays
CHAPTER 6:
Composition of Vitamins and Minerals
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Thiamine (Vitamin B1)
Structure
Conversion of Thiamine to TPP
Sources
RDA
Absorption and Transport
Functions
Deficiency
Types of Beriberi
Antimetabolites
Management
RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2)
Structure
Coenzyme Forms
Sources
RDA
Absorption and Transport
Conversion of Riboflavin to Flavin Nucleotides
Functions
Some Reactions Requiring Coenzymes of Riboflavin
Deficiency
Ariboflavinosis
Management
Niacin (Vitamin B3)
Structure
Active Forms
Source
RDA
Absorption and Transport
Conversion of Niacin to NAD
Conversion of Niacin to NADP
Biochemical Functions of Niacin
Deficiency
Pellagra
Reactions Requiring NAD+
Causes for Niacin Deficiency
Management
Prevention
Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B5)
Structure
Active Forms
Sources
RDA
Absorption and Transport
Functions
Deficiency
PYRIDOXINE (VITAMIN B6)
Structure
Sources
RDA
Absorption and Transport
Conversion to its Active Form
Biochemical Functions
Deficiency
Management
BIOTIN
Structure
RDA
Absorption and Transport
Functions
Carbon Dioxide Fixation Reactions
Deficiency
FOLIC ACID
Structure
Active Form
Sources
RDA
Absorption and Transport
Functions
Inhibitors of Folate Reductase (Folate antagonists)
Deficiency
Management
COBALAMIN (VITAMIN B12)
Structure
Active Form
Sources
RDA
Absorption, Transport and Storage
Functions
Folate Trap
Deficiency
Clinical Manifestations of Cobalamin
Management
VITAMIN C (ASCORBIC ACID)
Structure
Sources
RDA
Absorption and Transport
Functions
Deficiency
Management
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Vitamin A
Structure
Sources
RDA
Absorption, Transport and Storage
Functions
Determination of Vitamin A
Effects
Management
Deficiency
Toxicity
Vitamin D
Vitamin E (α-Tocopherol)
Structure
Sources
RDA
Absorption, Transport and Storage
Functions
Deficiency
Toxicity
Vitamin K
Structure
Sources
RDA
Absorption and Transport
Functions
Deficiency
Toxicity
Management
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essays
Short Essays
Short Answers
Calcium
Sources
Absorption
Factors Affecting Calcium Absorption
a. Increase in Calcium Absorption
b. Decrease in Calcium Absorption
Functions of Calcium
Serum Calcium
ABNORMAL CALCIUM LEVELS
Interpretation
PHOSPHORUS
Functions
Renal Rickets
Rickets
Interpretation
MAGNESIUM
Functions
ZINC
Functions
Deficiency Manifestations
IRON (FE)
Sources
Absorption, Storage and Utilization of Food Iron
Storage of Iron
Regulation of Body Iron
Manifestations
SODIUM
Metabolic Functions
Clinical Conditions
Determination of Sodium
Deficiency
POTASSIUM (K)
Metabolic Functions
Clinical Conditions
Hypokalemia
Hyperkalemia
Causes
Signs and Symptoms
Assay of Potassium
Normal Range
CHLORIDE (Cl–)
Metabolic Functions
Hypochloremia
Hyperchloremia
Determination of Chloride
Interpretation
SELENIUM (Se)
Functions
IODINE (I)
Function
Deficiency Manifestation
COPPER (Cu)
Functions
Menke's Syndrome or Kinky Hair Disease
Wilson's Disease (Hepatolenticular degeneration)
FLUORINE (FLUORIDE)
Functions
Diseases
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essays
Short Essays
Short Answers
CHAPTER 7:
Immunochemistry
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Long Essays
Short Notes
MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX (MHC)
HLA Antigens
Indications for HLA Typing
INTRODUCTION
Generation of Free Radicals
Antioxidant Defense Mechanism
Oxidative Stress
Action of Antioxidant
Enzymatic Antioxidant System or Scavenger Enzymes
Super-oxide Dismutase (SOD)
Catalase
Glutathione Peroxidase
Non-enzymatic (Nutrients) Antioxidant System
Vitamins
Minerals
COLLAGEN
Structural Organization
Quarter Staggered Arrangement in a Collagen Fiber
ELASTIN
KERATINS
Features
Features
MYOSIN
Domains
Skeletal Muscle Myosin
Myosin Classes
Myosin I
Myosin II
LENS PROTEINS
CHAPTER 8:
Nutrition
INTRODUCTION
Calorie
Kilocalorie (Cal/Kcal)
Calorific Value
Calorific Values Expressed in Kcal/g
Respiratory Quotient (RQ) for Foodstuff
Significance of RQ
Energy Requirements of an Individual
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
Conditions for Measuring BMR
Determination of BMR by Indirect Calorimetry
Factors Influencing BMR
Pathological
Significance of BMR
Specific Dynamic Action (SDA)
SDA Values
Significance
Energy for Physical Activity
Calculation of Calorie Requirement
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOSTLY LIKELY QUESTIONS
CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD
Nutritional Importance of Carbohydrates
Functions of Carbohydrates
Sources of Carbohydrates
Dietary Fiber
Beneficial Effects of Fiber
Mechanism
Adverse Effects of Fiber
Nutritional Importance of Lipids
Functions of Lipids
Points to Ponder
Nutritional Importance of Proteins
Protein Requirement
Nitrogen Balance
Criteria for Assessing the Quality of a Protein
Limiting Amino Acid
Mutual Supplementation of Proteins
Practical Application of Mutual Supplementation
Protein Indices
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Construction of Balanced Diet
Diet Chart
Balanced Diet Chart for Other Groups
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Nutritional Disorders
Disease of Overnutrition: Obesity
Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM)
Marasmus
Causes
Features
Kwashiorkor (Disease of Deposed Child)
Causes
Features
Treatment of PEM
Basis of Obesity
Clinical Significance
Types of Obesity
Endocrine Causes of Obesity
Physiological Cause of Obesity
Side Effects of Obesity
Treatment
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
MOST LIKELY QUESTIONS
Glossary
INDEX
TOC
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