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Textbook of Craniofacial Growth
Sridhar Premkumar
CHAPTER 1:
Biology of Bone and Cartilage
CHAPTER OUTLINE
CLASSIFICATION OF BONE
FUNCTIONS OF BONE
GROSS STRUCTURE OF LONG BONE
TYPES OF BONE TISSUE
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF BONE
The Matrix of Bone (Fig. 1.2)
Cortical Bone
Trabecular or Cancellous Bone
Composition of Bone
Collagens
Inside the Cell
Outside the Cell
Cells of Bone (Fig. 1.5)
Osteoblasts
Osteocytes
Osteoclasts
Osteogenic Cells
SKELETOGENESIS/BONE FORMATION
Membranous Ossification (Fig. 1.8)
Endochondral Ossification
Initiation of Calcification or Mineralization
Factors Influencing Mineralization
MECHANISM OF BONE GROWTH
Chondral Growth
Sutural Growth
Periosteal Growth
Remodeling
CARTILAGE
Lubrication Mechanism of Cartilages
Cartilage Replacement Mechanisms
Growth Plate
Synchondrosis
Nasal Cartilage (Fig. 1.20)
Condylar Cartilage
Primary and Secondary Cartilages
CHAPTER 2:
Physiology of Bone
CHAPTER OUTLINE
BONE TURNOVER
MODELING AND REMODELING (FIG. 2.1)
BASIC MULTICELLULAR UNIT (BMU)
MECHANICAL INFLUENCE ON BONE
BONE REGULATORS
PURPOSE OF BONE REMODELING
GOALS OF REMODELING
REMODELING PROCESS
Reactions of Bone
Bone Assessment Methodologies
CHAPTER 3:
Prenatal Craniofacial Growth
CHAPTER OUTLINE
PERIOD OF OVUM
PERIOD OF EMBRYO
Presomite Period
Gastrulation and Neurulation
Neural Tube Formation
Somite Period
Branchial Arches
Development of Face
Postsomite Period
Development of Tongue
Secondary Palate Development
Development of Mandible
Neurocranium/Calvarium
Cranial Base
FETAL PERIOD
DEVELOPMENT OF TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT (TMJ)
CHANGING RELATIONSHIPS IN FETAL FACE
CHAPTER 4:
Principles of Growth
CHAPTER OUTLINE
GROWTH PATTERN
Cephalocaudal Growth
Scammon's Growth Gradient (Fig. 4.2)
Variability
Concept of Normality and Variability
Timing
Velocity and Distance Curves
MECHANISM OF BONE GROWTH
Deposition and Resorption
Endosteal and Periosteal Bone Growth
Remodeling
Types of Remodeling
GROWTH MOVEMENTS
Drift and Displacement
Displacement
V Principle
Surface Principle (Fig. 4.14)
Posterior Growth and Anterior Displacement
GROWTH EQUIVALENTS CONCEPT/ENLOW COUNTERPART PRINCIPLE
CHAPTER 5:
Control Mechanisms in Craniofacial Growth
CHAPTER OUTLINE
CHANGING PARADIGMS OF CRANIOFACIAL BIOLOGY
1920 to 1940
1940 to 1960 (Fig. 5.2)
1960 to 1980 (Fig. 5.4)
Future of Craniofacial Biology
SITE VS CENTER
CONTROLLING FACTORS IN CRANIOFACIAL GROWTH
Von Limborgh's Classification (Table 5.1)
Enlow and Moyers’ Classification
Natural
Disruptive Factors
Goose and Appleton's Classification
Genetics
Sutural Growth
Multifactorial Interaction
Function
General Body Growth
Neurotrophism
Disruptive Factors
Endocrine Control
Racial Differences
Nutrition
Diseases
Socioeconomic Status
Secular Trend
THEORIES OF BONE GROWTH
Bone Remodeling Theory of Craniofacial Growth by Brash (1930)
The Genetic Theory (A. Brodie—1941)
The Sutural Hypothesis/Sutural Dominance Theory (Sicher and Weinnman)—1952
Essence of the Theory (Fig. 5.9)
Theory (Fig. 5.10)
Evidences against Sutural Theory
Conclusion
Scott Hypothesis/Nasal Septum Theory/Cartilagenous Theory/Nasocapsular Theory
Essence of Theory (Fig. 5.14)
Discussion
Evidences Supporting the Theory
Evidences Against the Theory
Conclusion
Functional Matrix Hypothesis (FMH)—Melvin Moss
Introduction
Essence of the Theory
Definition
Explanation (Fig. 5.18)
Functional Cranial Component
Functional Matrix
Skeletal Unit
Functional Cranial Analysis of Maxilla (Fig. 5.22)
Functional Cranial Analysis of Mandible
Transmission of Functional Stimulus to the Bone, Neurotrophism
Neuroepithelial Trophism
Constraints of Functional Matrix Hypothesis
Methodological Constraint
Hierarchial Constraint
Mechanotransduction
Osseous Mechanotransduction
Role of Osseous Connected Cellular Network (CCN)
Bone as an Osseous Connected Cellular Network
Conclusion
Von Limborgh's Compromise Theory (Box 5.2)
Modern Composite Theory (Fig. 5.31)
Essence of the Theory
Servo System Theory: Alexandre Petrovic
Essence of the Theory
Cybernetics
Cybernetics in Craniofacial Growth
Elements of Servo System Theory (Fig. 5.33)
Explanation of the Theory (Fig. 5.34)
Evidences Against the Theory
Conclusion
Rate Limiting Ratchet Hypothesis (Johnson)
Growth Relativity Hypothesis (John C Voudouris 2000)
Displacement of Condyle
Viscoelastic Stretch
Force Transduction and New Bone Formation
Conclusion
CHAPTER 6:
Postnatal Growth of the Craniofacial Skeleton
CHAPTER OUTLINE
POSTNATAL GROWTH OF CRANIAL VAULT/CALVARIA
CRANIAL BASE
NASOMAXILLARY COMPLEX
Maxilla
Palate
Zygomatic Bone
Nasal Cavity
Orbit
MANDIBLE
TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT
DYNAMICS OF FACIAL GROWTH
CHAPTER 7:
Development of Human Dentition, Supporting Structures and Occlusion
CHAPTER OUTLINE
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT OF MAXILLA AND MANDIBLE
Development of Mandible
Development of Maxilla
Dental Arch and Tooth Development
Tooth Development
Bud Stage
Cap Stage
Bell Stage
Amelogenesis
Dentinogenesis
Root Formation
Periodontium
Formation of the Periodontal Ligament
Cementum Formation
Alveolar Bone
Gingiva
Nerve and Vascular Formation
CHRONOLOGY OF HUMAN DENTITION
ERUPTION OF TOOTH (FIGS 7.11A TO E)
Mechanisms of Tooth Eruption
Posteruptive Tooth Movements
Factors Affecting Eruption of Teeth
Local Factors
Systemic Factors
Local Factors
Systemic Factors
EVOLUTION OF TEETH
The Evolution of Teeth and Jaws—The Agnathan to Gnathostome Transition
Control of Dental Patterning
Mandible and Maxillae
Theories of Mammalian Tooth Formation
DEVELOPMENT OF OCCLUSION
Mouth of the Neonate/Gum Pads/ Pre-dentition Stage (0–6 Months)
Primary Dentition Stage (6 Months to 6 Years)
Development of the Primary Teeth
Development of Primary Occlusion
First Inter-transitional Period
Mixed Dentition Stage—The Transitional Years (6–12 Years of Age)
First Transitional Period
Ugly Duckling Stage (Fig. 7.22)
Second Inter-transitional Period
Second Transitional Period
CHAPTER 8:
Growth of Soft Tissues
CHAPTER OUTLINE
SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDYING SOFT TISSUE GROWTH
METHODS OF STUDYING SOFT TISSUE GROWTH AND ASSESSMENT OF BALANCED PROFILE
SOFT TISSUE CHANGES DUE TO GROWTH
Nose
Lips
Chin
Profile
Height, Width
Depth
Oropharynx
Tongue
SOFT TISSUE CHANGES WITH TREATMENT PROCEDURES
Extraction vs Nonextraction
Retraction of Maxillary Incisors
Maxillary Protraction Therapy
Mandibular Advancement and Genioplasty
Double Jaw Surgery (Maxillary Impaction and Mandibular Advancement)
Bionator Treatment
CHAPTER 9:
Adolescence and Craniofacial Growth
CHAPTER OUTLINE
ENDOCRINOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE
TIMING OF PUBERTY
PUBERTAL GROWTH SPURT
CLINICAL FEATURES OR PHYSICAL CHANGES OF PUBERTAL DEVELOPMENT
FACIAL GROWTH DURING PUBERTY
Growth of Cranial Base During Puberty
Growth of Maxilla During Puberty
Pubertal Growth of Mandible
Soft Tissue Changes During Adolescence
CHAPTER 10:
Growth Studies and Assessment of Age
CHAPTER OUTLINE
METHODS OF GROWTH MEASUREMENTS
CRANIOMETRY
VITAL STAINING
Madder Feeding
Alizarin Red S Injections
Advantage
Disadvantage
HISTOLOGICAL METHOD
HISTOCHEMICAL STUDIES
Implants
INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS
Advantages
Disadvantages
SERIAL CEPHALOMETRIC RADIOGRAPHY AND IMPLANTATION
Advantages
Other Considerations
ASSESSMENT OF AGE
Chronological Age
Somatotypic Age
Height and Weight Age
Skeletal Age
Dental Age
Sexual Age
Facial Age
SKELETAL AGE ASSESSMENT
Carpal Bones
History
Tanner and Whitehouse Method
Bjork, Grave and Brown Method (1976)
Singer's Method of Skeletal Maturity Assessment
Fishman Skeletal Maturity Indicator
Skeletal Maturity Indication Method Developed by Hagg and Taranger (Fig. 10.5)
Middle Third Phalanx
Distal Third Phalanx
Modified Hagg and Taranger by Rajagopal et al (2002) (Fig. 10.6)
Cervical Vertebrae as Skeletal Maturity Indicator
Modified Stages of Cervical Vertebral Maturation given by McNamara, Bacetti and Franchi (2005)
Mandibular Canine Calcification as an Indicator of Skeletal Maturation
Development of Mandibular Third Molar as an Indicator of Skeletal Maturation
Frontal Sinus as Skeletal Maturity Indicator Ruf and Pancherz—1996
Prediction Procedure (Table 10.4)
CHAPTER 11:
Craniometry, Anthropometry and Cephalometrics in Growth
CHAPTER OUTLINE
ANTHROPOMETRY
CRANIOMETRY
History of Craniometry
Craniometric Landmarks (Figs 11.4 and 11.5)
Anthropometric Instruments
Definitions of Cranial and Postcranial Measurements (Figs 11.7 to 11.9)
Craniometric Indices
Advantages
Disadvantages
CEPHALOMETRICS AND GROWTH
Origin of Cephalometry
Types of Cephalograms
Method of Cephalometric Data Acquisition
Cephalometric Landmarks (Fig. 11.10)
Landmarks on Cranial Skeleton
Landmarks on Maxilla
Landmarks on Mandible
Soft Tissue Landmarks
Reference Planes
Sella-Nasion Plane
Frankfurt Horizontal Plane
Palatal Plane
Mandibular Plane
STANDARDIZING THE CEPHALOGRAMS FOR COMPARISON
Natural Head Position
Norm and Individual Norm
Superimposing Cephalograms for Growth Studies
Cranial Base Superimposition
Maxillary Superimposition
Mandibular Superimposition
APPLICATION OF CEPHALOMETRICS IN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
To Evaluate the Present Growth Status of the Individual (To Determine the Skeletal Structure and Facial Type)
Angular Measurements
Angular Measurements for Horizontal and Vertical Measurement of Jaw Bases
Linear Measurements (Fig. 11.12)
Growth Prediction
Identification of the Important Areas of Facial Growth and Quantification of the Growth
To Estimate the Timing of Growth Spurts
To Assess the Growth of Soft Tissues
To Assess the Change in Dental and Skeletal Relationships during Adult Growth
To Assess the Impact of Growth on the Orthodontic Treatment
CHAPTER 12:
Growth Prediction
CHAPTER OUTLINE
NEED FOR GROWTH PREDICTION
METHODS OF PREDICTION
Growth Prediction in Orthodontics
Hunterian Concept (Fig. 12.1)
Gnomonic Growth and the Logarithmic Spiral
Gnomonic Growth of Rectilinear Figures
Gnomonic Growth of the Human Face
Arcial Growth of Mandible
Principle of Arcial Growth
Landmarks (Figs 12.7 to 12.9)
Synthesis
Moorrees Mesh
Construction (Fig. 12.14)
Johnston's Grid
Todd's Equation
Visualized Treatment Objective (VTO)
Advantages of VTO:
Limitations of VTO:
Holdaway's VTO
Ricketts’ VTO
Cranial Base
Mandibular Growth Prediction
Maxillary Growth Prediction
Occlusal Plane
Dentition
Soft Tissue
Morphometrics Methods
Biorthogonal Analysis
Allometric Model of Growth
Allometric Networks
Finite Element Method (FEM)
Analysis of Growth Behavior
Growth Tensors
Advantages of FEM
CHAPTER 13:
Growth Rotations
CHAPTER OUTLINE
IMPLANT RADIOGRAPHY
Technique of Implant Radiography
MANDIBULAR GROWTH ROTATIONS
BJORK'S (1969) CLASSIFICATION
Structural Signs of Growth Rotation
BJORK AND SKEILLER'S METHOD
SCHUDY'S CONCEPT (Flow chart 13.1)
The Clockwise Rotation (Fig. 13.6)
Counterclockwise Rotation (Fig. 13.7)
DIBBETS’ CONCEPT
PROFFIT'S DESCRIPTION OF ROTATION (Flow chart 13.2)
GROWTH ROTATION OF MAXILLA
JAW ROTATION AND TOOTH ERUPTION
MUTUAL RELATIONSHIP OF ROTATING JAW BASES
STUDIES ON GROWTH ROTATIONS
Skeiller, Arne Bjork and Linde-Hansen Method (1984)
Method by Todd, Ram S Nanda, Frans Currier, Surendar K Nanda
Inferences
Observations of Petrovic and Stutzman
CEPHALOMETRIC DIAGNOSIS IN GROWTH ROTATION
CHAPTER 14:
Growth Patterns in Skeletal Malocclusion
CHAPTER OUTLINE
GROWTH PATTERN IN VERTICAL SKELETAL DISPROPORTIONS
Hyperdivergent Growth Pattern
Ramus Inclination
Middle Cranial Fossa Inclination
Posterior Maxillary Height
Horizontal Maxillary Inclination
Mandibular Plane Inclination
Hypodivergent Facial Growth Pattern
GROWTH PATTERN OF SKELETAL CLASS II MALOCCLUSION
Class II Division 1 Malocclusion
Class II Division 2 Malocclusion
Cranial Base Flexure and Class II Malocclusions
GROWTH PATTERN OF CLASS III MALOCCLUSIONS
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN VARIOUS MALOCCLUSIONS
POSITION OF GLENOID FOSSA IN DIFFERENT FACIAL TYPES
CHAPTER 15:
Growth and Craniofacial Anomalies
CHAPTER OUTLINE
DEVELOPMENT OF CRANIOFACIAL PRIMORDIA
NEURAL CREST CELLS
Characteristics of Neural Crest Cells
GANGLIONIC PLACODAL CELLS
PATTERNING BRANCHIAL ARCHES IN HEAD
HOMEOBOX GENES
DEVELOPMENTAL ANOMALIES
Abnormalities of Neural Crest Cell Origin and Migration
Holoprosencephaly and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Retinoic acid Syndrome
Thalidomide Related Craniofacial Abnormalities
Neural Tube Defects
DiGeorge Syndrome
Down's Syndrome
Hemifacial Microsomia
Treacher-Collins Syndrome (Figs 15.9A and B)
Facial Clefting (Figs 15.10A to K)
Achondroplasia
Premature Closure of Cranial and Facial Sutures
ABNORMAL GROWTH PATTERNS
CHAPTER 16:
Growth Considerations in Stability of Orthodontic Treatment
CHAPTER OUTLINE
CHANGES RELATED TO GROWTH
Growth Changes in Forward Rotating Mandible
Growth Changes in Posterior Rotation of the Mandible
Maxillary Growth Rotation and Stability
Changes in Arch Width and Arch Length
Growth Considerations in Stability of Extraction and Non-extraction Treatment
Growth Considerations in Retention Period after Treatment in Various Types of Malocclusion
Short Face Syndrome
Long Face Syndrome
Retention in Class II Correction
Retention after Class III Malocclusion
CHAPTER 17:
Temporomandibular Joint
CHAPTER OUTLINE
ANATOMY OF TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT
Articular Surfaces
Capsule
Articular Disk
Ligaments
Capsular Ligament
Functions
Temporomandibular Ligament
Collateral (Diskal) Ligament
Minor Ligaments
Nerve Supply and Blood Supply
EMBRYOLOGY
Primary Joint
Secondary Joint
Temporal Blastema
Condylar Blastema
HISTOLOGY (FIG. 17.8)
Condyle of the Mandible
Roof of Glenoid Fossa
Articular Surfaces of the Mandibular Condyle and Fossa
Articular Surface of Temporal Bone
Articular Disk
Blood Vessels in the Posterior Part of the Articular Disk (Fig. 17.10)
Synovial Membrane
Synovial Fluid
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION
CONDYLAR GROWTH AND GLENOID FOSSA DISPLACEMENT DURING GROWTH AND IN MALOCCLUSION
CHAPTER 18:
Myology and Neuromuscular Reflexes
CHAPTER OUTLINE
MUSCLE
Classification of Muscle
Types of Muscle
SKELETAL MUSCLE
Histology
Types
The Muscle Fiber (Muscle Cells)
Physiology of Muscle Contraction
DEVELOPMENT OF MUSCLE AND MUSCLE CHANGES DURING GROWTH
SKELETAL MUSCLES IN THE CRANIOFACIAL REGION
Facial Muscles (Fig. 18.4)
Muscles of Mastication (Figs 18.5A and B)
The Temporalis Muscle
The Masseter Muscle
The Lateral Pterygoid Muscle
The Medial Pterygoid Muscle
FORM AND FUNCTION
Short Face Syndrome (Fig. 18.6)
Long Face Syndrome (Fig. 18.7)
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY REGARDING FORM AND FUNCTION—FACTORS CONTROLLING FACIAL GROWTH
Role of Masticatory Muscle Thickness
Role of Bite Force
Role of Spatial Orientation of Muscles
Role of Muscle Activity
Role of Muscle Fiber Type
Buccinator Mechanism (Fig. 18.10)
Muscle Function in Normal Occlusion
REFLEX CONTROL OF JAW MUSCLES
Receptors
Types of Reflex
Myotatic Reflex
Clasp Knife Reflex
Jaw Closing Reflex
Jaw Opening Reflex
CHAPTER 19:
Maturation of Orofacial Functions
CHAPTER OUTLINE
RESPIRATION
SWALLOWING OR DEGLUTITION
Infantile Swallow (Figs 19.2A and B)
Mature Swallow
Stages of Swallowing (Figs 19.4A to D)
1. Oral Preparation Stage
2. Oral Stage
3. Pharyngeal Stage
4. Esophageal Stage
MASTICATION
Neurological Control of Mastication
Child and Adult Chewing Patterns
Murphy's Six Strokes of Mastication
SPEECH
Neurophysiology
Mechanism of Speech Production
Subsystems of Speech
Maturation and Description of Speech
Consonants and Vowels
Classes of Consonant Sounds
Milestones of Speech Development
Milestones
CHAPTER 20:
Genetics and Craniofacial Growth
CHAPTER OUTLINE
DNA
Transcription (Fig. 20.2)
Translation (Fig. 20.2)
GENE
REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION
Transcription Factor
UP-REGULATION AND DOWN-REGULATION
MUTATION
Gene Targeting
MENDELIAN GENETICS
Mendel's Laws
Law of Uniformity
Law of Segregation
Law of Independent Assortment
MODES OF INHERITANCE
Autosomal Inheritance
Sex-linked Inheritance
MULTIFACTORIAL INHERITANCE
Discontinuous Multifactorial Traits
Continuous Multifactorial Traits
TWIN STUDIES
The Value of Twin Studies
Heritability of Dentofacial Phenotypes
Class II Malocclusion
Class III Malocclusion
Heritability of Local Occlusal Variables
Heritability of Tooth Number, Size, Morphology, Position and Eruption
Hypodontia
Supernumerary Teeth
Abnormal Tooth Shape
Submerged Primary Molars
Ectopic Eruption and Transposition of Canines
Cleft Lip and Palate
LIMITATIONS OF TWIN STUDIES
METHODS OF TRANSMISSION OF MALOCCLUSION
MOLECULAR APPROACH TO GROWTH
GROWTH FACTORS
Transforming Growth Factor (TGF)
Fibroblast Growth Factors (FGF)
Associated Syndromes (Table 20.1)
Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGFs)
IGF-1/Growth Hormone Axis
Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs)
TRILAMINAR GERM DISK
NEURAL CREST CELLS
THE ROLE OF HOMEOBOX GENES (FIGS 20.10A AND B)
CRANIOFACIAL DEVELOPMENT
Patterning of Face and Jaws
Patterning the Midline
Growth of Craniofacial Skeleton
Growth of Cranial Base
Growth of Cranial Sutures (Fig. 20.11)
Palate Formation
Growth of Facial Sutures
Growth of Condylar Cartilage
Patterning of the Dentition
Odontogenic Homeobox Code
MSX Genes
DLX Genes
BARX Genes
PAX Genes
Hedgehog Genes
Molecular Basis of Hypodontia
CRANIOFACIAL DEFECTS
Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate (Fig. 20.12 and Tables 20.2 and 20.3)
Non-syndromic CLP/CP
Syndromic CLP
Syndromic CP
Sex-linked CP (CPX)
Inheritance Patterns of Cleft Lip and Palate
Craniofacial Syndromes
Crouzon's Syndrome
Apert's Syndrome
Treacher-Collins Syndrome
Pfeiffer Syndrome
DiGeorge Syndrome
FUTURE OF MOLECULAR RESEARCH IN CRANIOFACIAL GROWTH
CHAPTER 21:
Emotional Growth
CHAPTER OUTLINE
SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY
THE DYNAMICS OF EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT FROM INFANT TO ADULT
Newborn to Three Years of Life
Emotional Changes
Cognitive Changes
Social Changes
Three Years to Six Years of Life
Emotional Changes
Cognitive Changes
Social Changes
Six Years to Twelve Years of Life
Emotional Changes
Cognitive Changes
Social Changes
From 12 Years to 18 Years (Adolescence)
Emotional Changes
Cognitive Changes
Social Changes
Age Eighteen to Death (Adulthood)
THEORIES OF EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Theories of Psychology
The Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)
The Id/Fantasy
The Ego/Reality
Superego/Idealistic
Defense Mechanisms
Stages of Psychoanalytical Theory
Oral Stage (0 to 18 months)
Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years)
Phallic Stage (3 to 5 years)
Latent Stage (6 to 12 years)
Genital Stage (13 to 19 years)
Psychosocial Theory (Erik Erikson) (Fig. 21.4)
Stages of Psychosocial Development (Fig. 21.5)
Development of Basic Trust: Birth to 18 Months (Trust vs Mistrust)
Development of Autonomy: 18 Months to 3 Years (Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt)
Shame and Doubt
Development of Initiative (3–6 years): Initiative vs Guilt
Mastery of Skills (7–11years): Industry vs Inferiority
Development of Personal Identity (12–17 years): Identity vs Role Confusion
Development of Intimacy (Young adult): Intimacy vs Isolation
Guidance of the Next Generation (Adults): Generativity vs Stagnation
Attainment of Integrity (Late Adult): Integrity vs Despair
Cognitive Theory—Jean Piaget (Fig. 21.6)
Mechanism of Cognition Development
Stages of Cognitive Development (Fig. 21.7)
Sensorimotor Period (0–2 year)
Preoperational Period (2–7 year)
Period of Concrete Operations (7–11 year)
Period of Formal Operations (11 years - adult)
Classical Conditioning Theory by Ivan Pavlov (Fig. 21.8)
Features of Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning Theory—BF Skinner (Fig. 21.10)
Theory
Definitions of Terms
Types of Operant Conditioning (Table 21.1)
Social Learning Theory—Albert Bandura (Fig. 21.12)
Hierarchy of Needs—Abraham Maslow, 1943 (Fig. 21.14)
Maslow's Basic or Deficiency Needs
Maslow's Growth Needs
Psycho-orthodontic Theory
HABIT INTERVENTION AND EMOTIONAL GROWTH
Thumb Sucking
Preschool Child
School Child
Treatment Approach
Psychological Approach
Bruxism and TMJ
THE ROLE OF MALOCCLUSION IN PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
Self Concepts
Teeth vs Facial Attractiveness
Females vs Males
Parental Status
Emotional Development and Orthodontic Treatment Need
Body Image
Parent and Peers
Culture and Ethnics
Self-concept and Self-esteem
Treatment During Preadolescence or Adolescence
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND ITS RELATION TO COOPERATION IN TREATMENT
INDEX
TOC
Index
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