Pearls in Glaucoma Therapy Tanuj Dada, Parul Ichhpujani, George L Spaeth
INDEX
A
Acetazolamide 61
Acidosis 86
Adrenergic agonists 62
Adrenocortical insufficiency 83
Advanced glaucoma intervention study 11
Agranulocytosis 86
Alpha agonists 78
Amino acids 4
Anorexia 86
Antihypertensive medications 123
Anticardiolipin antibody 37
Antiglaucoma medications 61
Anxiety 128
Aplastic anemia 86
Apraclonidine 78, 79
Aspartate 4
Asthenia 86
Atypical band keratopathy 98
B
Benzalkonium chloride 74, 96
Beta-blockers 72
Betaxolol 72
Bimatoprost 61, 62
Biochemical theory 4
Blood
dyscrasia 86
flow 3
pressure 3, 5
charting 37
viscosity 3
Brimonidine 61, 78, 79
Brinzolamide 61
C
Caffeine 125
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors 62, 82
Cardiovascular
accident 8
disease 13
Carotid Doppler testing 36
Carteolol 72
Central
corneal thickness 2, 10, 12, 19
nervous system 75
Cetrimide 97
Chlorhexidine digluconate 97
Chlorobutanol 97
Cholesterol 8
Cholinergics 62
Chronic
angle closure glaucoma 115
hyperemia secondary to latanoprost 65
Closed angle on gonioscopy 21
Collaborative
initial glaucoma treatment study 11
normal tension glaucoma study 120
Color vision disorder 86
Concept of glaucoma colored graph 40
Confusion 86
Congenital glaucoma 90
Conjunctival
changes 97
hyperemia 64
Continuous positive airway pressure therapy 125
Coronary heart disease 8
Cystoid macular edema 66
D
Deconsanoids 62
Decrease in blood supply to optic nerve head 2
Decreased libido 86
Depression 86, 128
Diabetes 5
mellitus 13
Dipivefrin 61
Direct acting cholinergic agents 89
Disc
damage likelihood scale 23, 24
hemorrhage 24
OD 26
OS 27
Distribution of IOP 9
Diurnal fluctuation of IOP 51
Dorzolamide 61
E
Early manifest glaucoma
treatment study 127
trial 10
Epinephrine 61
Erythema 86
multiforme 86
Extracellular matrix 3
Eye drops 113
Eyebrows 86
F
Factors influencing target IOP 50
First line therapy 104
Follicular conjunctivitis 98
G
Gastrointestinal disorder 86
Glaucoma 1, 123
colored graph 40
continuum 39
in pregnant and lactating patients 116
Glaucomatous
neuropathy 50
optic
nerve 9, 51
neuropathy 5
Globus hystericus 86
Glutamate 4, 5
mediated toxicity 4
Glycerin 93, 94
Glycerol 93
Glycosuria 86
Goldmann tonometer 19
Gonioscopy 20
Green zone 41
H
Heidelberg retinal tomography 26, 58
HRT
OD 53
OS 28, 54
printout 35
Humphry matrix FDP perimetry 34
Hypertension 8, 13
Hypertrichosis 65
Hypotension 13
Hypotensive lipids 62
I
Indirect acting anti-cholinesterase agents 89
Inferior RNFL defect 43
Inflammatory glaucomas 89
Intracranial hemorrhage 93
Intraocular pressure 1, 2, 19, 38, 123
Intrinsic sympathomimetic activity 74
IOP related damage 2
Iris color changes 65
Iritis 86
L
Latanoprost 61, 62
Level of IOP 9
Levobunolol 61, 72
Loss of eyelashes 86
Low
perfusion pressure 13
systemic blood pressure 4
systolic BP 13
tension glaucoma 36, 120
Lumigan 62
Lyell's syndrome 86
M
Malaise syndrome 86
Malignant glaucoma 90
Maximal tolerable medical therapy 104
Mechanical theory 2, 3
Methazolamide 86
Metipranolol 72
Migraine 13
Mild disease 51
Miotics 89
Mitochondrial metabolism 5
Moderate disease 51
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors 80
Monocular therapeutic trial 103
Multi drug therapy 99
Myocardial infarction 8
N
Natural history of glaucoma 39
Nausea 86
Necktie wear 127
Neovascular glaucoma 89, 119
Neuro-retinal rim 21
Normal
intraocular pressure 9
pressure glaucoma 36
tension glaucoma 2, 4
O
Obesity 8
OCT 29, 55
Ocular
beta-blockers 72
cicatricial pemphigoid 98
hypertension 2
treatment study 10
hypotensive medications 61
surface health 129
Open
angle
glaucoma 61
on gonioscopy 21
anterior chamber angles 2
disc 1
color and red free photos 32
nerve
damage 59
head evaluation 21
Optical coherence tomography 26
Oral carbonic anhydrase inhibitors 61
P
Paresthesia 86
Pathogenesis of glaucoma 2
Pediatric glaucomas 116
Perfusion pressure 3
Periocular dermatitis 99
Periorbital
dermatitis with brimonidine 80
skin hyperpigmentation 65
Physostigmine 61
Pilocarpine 61
Pilocarpus microphyllus 89
Polypharmacy era 61
Polyuria 86
Pregnancy 66
Preperimetric glaucoma 2
Pressure-cornea-vascular index 20
Pressure-to-cornea index 19
Primary
angle closure
disease 1
glaucoma 115
open angle glaucoma 1, 2
Progression of glaucomatous optic neuropathy 25
Progressive optic neuropathy 2
Prostaglandin analogs 61, 62
Prostamide 62
R
Red zone 41
Refractive error 13
Renal disorder 86
Retinal
ganglion cells 2
nerve fiber 1, 40
RNFL defect 43
S
Scanning laser polarimetry 26
Severe disease 51
Shirshasana yoga posture 128
Significant respiratory disease 83
Sleep
apnea 5
disordered breathing 125
Somnolence 86
Squamous metaplasia 97
STAR calculator 15
Stevens-Johnson syndrome 86
Subconjunctival fibrosis 98
Subepithelial fibrosis 97
Synechial angle closure 48
Systemic disease 13
T
Tafluoprost 62
Tenon's capsule 98
Tentatively assigned target pressure 51
Thrombocytopenia 86
Timolol 61, 72
Topical carbonic anhydrase inhibitors 61
Travoprost 61, 62, 67
U
Unoprostone 61
isopropyl 62
Urolithiasis 86
Urticaria 86
Uveitic glaucoma 118
V
Vascular theory 4
Visual field
abnormalities 51
loss 39
OD 30, 46, 56
OS 31, 33, 47, 57
testing 25
Vomiting 86
W
Weight loss 86
White-on-white perimetry 25
X
Xovatra 67
Y
Yellow zone 41
Yoga 127
×
Chapter Notes

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What is Glaucoma?1

Glaucoma is a group of eye diseases characterized by a progressive optic neuropathy (with multifactorial risk factors) and recognizable patterns of optic disc and retinal nerve fiber structural and visual field functional damage.1
The disease is caused by a variety of mechanical, vascular and biochemical factors leading to retinal ganglion cell apoptosis, which manifests clinically as optic neuropathy and finally can lead to blindness for a patient if not recognized or treated in time.
 
MAGNITUDE OF THE PROBLEM
Glaucoma is the leading cause for irreversible blindness worldwide and in India. It is estimated that glaucoma cases worldwide will increase from 60 million in 2010 to 80 million in 2020 due to increased aging population.2, 3 It has been estimated that nearly 12 million Indians currently have glaucoma and this figure will increase to more than 16 million by 2020.2 Population-based studies in India suggest that more than 90% of glaucoma cases in our country remain undiagnosed.410 This is in contrast to 40–60% rates of undiagnosed disease in more developed countries. These high rates of undiagnosed glaucoma translate into significant rates of glaucoma blindness.
The World Glaucoma Association has set a goal of reducing the undiagnosed rate of glaucoma from “50% to No more than 20% by 2020.” Since visual loss for glaucoma is totally preventable if detected and treated in time, it is imperative for general ophthalmologists to have an overview of the disease and understand the principles of its medical management.
Since 1622, when Richard Banister first noticed a connection between hard eyeballs and blindness, IOP and primary open-angle glaucoma has been inexorably linked. In this text, we will focus mainly on the management of primary open angle glaucoma (POAG). Primary angle closure disease and glaucoma management in special cases such as in children and pregnant women will be dealt in a separate section. In addition this manual will also look at non-IOP dependant factors which can influence the course of the disease.
The purpose of this manual is to focus the attention of the reader on the patient as a whole and not just treat the intraocular pressure, because we are 2dealing with a sick eye in a sick body. Therefore, the target is not the “IOP” but the “Patient,” as the final aim of treating any disease is to improve the quality of life of the patient.
 
STANDARD DEFINITIONS
 
POAG
Primary open angle glaucoma is a chronic, progressive optic neuropathy causing characteristic morphological changes at the optic nerve head and retinal nerve fiber layer in the absence of other ocular disease or congenital anomalies in eyes with open anterior chamber angles. Progressive retinal ganglion cell loss leads to corresponding visual field defects. The relative risk for primary open angle glaucoma rises continuously with the level of intraocular pressure (IOP) and there is no evidence of a threshold intraocular pressure for the onset of the condition.11 Diagnosis of the disease can be made if there is evidence of progressive structural change in the optic nerve head and/or retinal nerve fiber layer in the absence of functional defects on standard automated white on white perimetry (Preperimetric glaucoma).
 
Normal Tension Glaucoma (NTG)
The definition is same as POAG except that the central corneal thickness (CCT) corrected IOP is less than 22 mmHg (mean + 2SD) on diurnal variation. It is a diagnosis of exclusion; most cases are managed like POAG.12, 13
 
Ocular Hypertension (OHT)
It is defined as the CCT corrected IOP above the 97.5 percentile in that population, with open angles on gonioscopy and no disc or field changes.14
 
PATHOGENESIS OF GLAUCOMA
There are three major theories regarding the pathogenesis of glaucoma:
  • Mechanical (IOP related damage),
  • Vascular (decrease in blood supply to optic nerve head), and
  • Biochemical (decrease in neurotrophic factors/increased levels of neurotoxins).
Therefore, the three possible therapeutic options would be to decrease IOP and/or increase perfusion to the optic nerve head and provide neuroprotection to retinal ganglion cells.15, 16
 
 
Mechanical Theory
Elevated IOP often results from alterations in aqueous humor dynamics due to changes in trabecular meshwork leading to impaired drainage of aqueous. The trabecular meshwork has been shown to exhibit cytoskeletal changes 3in cells, altered cellularity and changes in extracellular matrix (ECM). An increase in IOP leads to interference with axoplasmic flow, which results in decreased delivery of essential growth factors produced by target cells of superior colliculus and lateral geniculate body to the optic nerve head. The axons of RGCs which are subjected to axoplasmic flow obstruction become distended at the nerve head due to membrane bound vesicles. RGC death after exposure to elevated IOP takes place in two phases. The primary mechanism of neuronal loss in the initial phase is apoptosis18 while in the second phase neuronal loss is due to toxic effects of the primary degenerating neurons in addition to continuing exposure to elevated IOP.1719
Figure 1.1 is a simplified flow diagram of the mechanical theory.
 
Vascular Theory
The optic nerve head blood flow is dependent on the following factors:
  • Resistance to blood flow
  • Blood pressure (BP)
  • IOP
  • Blood viscosity
Ocular blood flow is determined by the equation:
Blood flow = Perfusion pressure/ Resistance to flow
Perfusion pressure can be calculated as:
Perfusion pressure = Mean arterial BP– IOP
where, Mean arterial BP = Diastolic BP + 1/3 (Systolic BP- Diastolic BP)
Hence a decrease in blood pressure or an increase in IOP reduces the perfusion pressure to optic nerve head.
In a healthy eye, a constant flow of blood is required in the retina and optic nerve head so as to meet their high metabolic needs. To maintain a constant rate of blood flow an efficient autoregulatory mechanism operates in arteries, arterioles and capillaries over a wide range of day-to-day fluctuations in ocular perfusion pressure that is dependent on both the systemic blood pressure and IOP.
zoom view
Fig. 1.1: Mechanical theory
4
These autoregulatory mechanisms are more robust in young individuals as compared to the elderly. Deficient autoregulatory mechanisms leading to ischemia contribute to the development of glaucomatous neuronal damage with increasing age. POAG and normal tension glaucoma patients have also shown a chronically reduced optic nerve head and retinal blood flow20, 21 especially in people with low systemic blood pressure leading to reduced ocular perfusion pressure.
Several studies point towards an association between vascular insufficiency and glaucoma. A positive association of glaucoma has been observed with migraine22 and peripheral vascular abnormalities23 that involve dysregulation of cerebral and peripheral vasculature respectively. Increased sensitivity to endothelin-1-mediated vasoconstriction is implicated in these vascular abnormalities. The possible role of this vasoconstrictor is also suspected in the pathogenesis of glaucoma as increased levels of endothelin-1 have been detected in the aqueous humor and plasma of glaucoma patients. Figure 1.2 shows the association between primary endothelial dysfunction and neuronal damage.
In a way mechanical and vascular theories are interlinked, because excavation of the optic disc leads to kinking of the blood vessels which in itself can compromise the blood supply.
 
Biochemical Theory
The term “excitotoxic” describes dual action of specific amino acids like glutamate and aspartate, which leads to neural excitation in their normal state and cell toxicity when they are in excess. Glutamate Mediated toxicity:
zoom view
Fig. 1.2: Vascular theory
5
Glutamate is a normal neurotransmitter in the retina which can accumulate in excess, resulting in toxic levels. Apoptotic cell death of RGCs has also been attributed to glutamate-mediated toxicity and upon exposure to hypoxic conditions retinal cells are known to release glutamate.24 Glutamate-induced excitotoxicity is primarily mediated by ionotropic NMDA subtype receptors.2527 NMDA receptor activation leads to opening of associated ion channels and the entry of extracellular Ca++ and Na+ into the neurons, finally leading to apoptosis and cell death. In addition, excess production of nitric oxide (NO) by astrocytes and microglia in optic nerve head may play a crucial role in the development of optic neuropathy associated with glaucoma.28 It is a free radical of moderate reactivity and after entering the cell leads to the production of highly reactive free radicals such as peroxynitrite after combining with superoxide (a product of mitochondrial metabolism). These highly reactive free radicals are capable of causing massive destruction of cell components and macromolecules leading to apoptosis.
Our concepts of the glaucomas are constantly evolving as our understanding of disease processes becomes better, technology advances, and our treatment strategies become more sophisticated.
As of today the only feasible option is to reduce IOP by medical, laser or surgical therapy. In addition, one needs to address non-IOP dependant systemic factors such as blood pressure, diabetes, sleep apnea, lipids, vasospasm and life-style changes which can contribute to a worsening of glaucomatous optic neuropathy (discussed later in detail).
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