1. Virchow—Invention of microscope.
2. Celsius—Work on naked eye appearance of diseased organs.
3. Pasteur—Showed the way to active immunization.
4. Jenner—Laid foundation of bacteriology.
5. Mendel—Discovered principles of inheritence.

1. Histopathology—The diagnosis of disease by examining altered histology of tissue sections.
2. Exfoliate cytology—Diagnosis of disease by studying body fluids secretion and excretions.
3. Toxicology—Study of defence processes in the body
4. Hematology—Study of infectious processes.
5. Forensic pathology—Use of pathology for legal purposes.

1. Allophenic mouse—A mouse in which two types of cells form clones of varying number in different organs.
   2
2. In paraffin wax technique, tissue is fixed usually in 10 percent formalin, dehydrated graded alcohols, cleared in xylol, chloroform or other solvent which is mixable with both alcohol and wax.
3. Pathogenesis—The cause of disease.
4. Etiology—The mechanism by which disease is caused
5. Recombinant DNA—Artificial joining of DNA of one species (e.g. humans) to that of others (e.g. bacteria).

1. Can differentiate between lymphoma and carcinoma as well as between adenocarcinoma and mesothelioma.
2. Can be used to classify lymphomas.
3. Can employ osmium tetraoxide as a fixative as well as special stain for lipids.
4. Can differentiate between prostate cancer and gastric cancer.
5. Can locate the primary site of a squamous cell carcinoma (SCC).

1. FNAC preserves cellular and tissue architecture.
2. Urinary cytology detects transitional cell carcinoma
3. Diagnosis is not very accurate.
4. Exfoliate cytology is performed on cells aspirated by fine needle.

1. A biopsy should be sent to pathology ideally fresh in saline, but is sent in 10 percent formalin 10 to 20 times the volume of specimen.
2. For immunohistochemical (IHC) analysis using immunoflouresence of immunoperoxide method, the latter (IP) method is less advantageous.
3. A biopsy can be sent to laboratory without any information.
4. Cloning involves isolation of a particular fragments of DNA (usually a gene) and obtaining multiple copies.
5. Vectors used for cloning can be plasmid vectors or artificial yeast chromosomes (YACS).

1. Hypo—deficient
2. It'is—Inflammation
3. Plasia—Growth abnormality
4. Hetero—Dissimilar in composition
5. Meta—In excess

 

1. Virchow—Invention of microscope.
2. Celsius—Work on naked eye appearance of diseased organs.
3. Pasteur—Showed the way to active immunization.
4. Jenner—Laid foundation of bacteriology.
5. Mendel—Discovered principles of inheritence.

1. Histopathology—The diagnosis of disease by examining altered histology of tissue sections.
2. Exfoliate cytology—Diagnosis of disease by studying body fluids secretion and excretions.
3. Toxicology—Study of defence processes in the body
4. Hematology—Study of infectious processes.
5. Forensic pathology—Use of pathology for legal purposes.

1. Allophenic mouse—A mouse in which two types of cells form clones of varying number in different organs.
2. In paraffin wax technique, tissue is fixed usually in 10 percent formalin, dehydrated graded alcohols, cleared in xylol, chloroform or other solvent which is mixable with both alcohol and wax.
3. Pathogenesis—The cause of disease.
4. Etiology—The mechanism by which disease is caused
5. Recombinant DNA—Artificial joining of DNA of one species (e.g. humans) to that of others (e.g. bacteria).

1. Can differentiate between lymphoma and carcinoma as well as between adenocarcinoma and mesothelioma.
2. Can be used to classify lymphomas.
3. Can employ osmium tetraoxide as a fixative as well as special stain for lipids.
4. Can differentiate between prostate cancer and gastric cancer.
5. Can locate the primary site of a squamous cell carcinoma (SCC).

1. FNAC preserves cellular and tissue architecture.
2. Urinary cytology detects transitional cell carcinoma
3. Diagnosis is not very accurate.
4. Exfoliate cytology is performed on cells aspirated by fine needle.

1. A biopsy should be sent to pathology ideally fresh in saline, but is sent in 10 percent formalin 10 to 20 times the volume of specimen.
2. For immunohistochemical (IHC) analysis using immunoflouresence of immunoperoxide method, the latter (IP) method is less advantageous.
3. A biopsy can be sent to laboratory without any information.
4. Cloning involves isolation of a particular fragments of DNA (usually a gene) and obtaining multiple copies.
5. Vectors used for cloning can be plasmid vectors or artificial yeast chromosomes (YACS).

1. Hypo—deficient
2. It'is—Inflammation
3. Plasia—Growth abnormality
4. Hetero—Dissimilar in composition
5. Meta—In excess

 

1. Occluding junctions and zona adherence are the same.
2. Macula densa are also called nexus.
3. Integrins and selectins share a common role of leukocyte—endothelial cell interaction.
4. Cadherins prevent cancers from becoming invasive.
5. Immunoglobulin superfamily molecules have a role in recognizing and binding immunological molecules.
6. Cytokines are secreted by hemopoietic cells only.
7. Tyrosine kinase associated receptors cause synthesis and secretion of various hormones.
8. G-proteins are also called guanosine nucleotide binding regulatory proteins.

1. Cyclin E controls synthesis of mRNA and proteins required for DNA synthesis; cyclin A controls DNA replication, and cyclin B controls correct daughter DNA synthesis.
2. After mitosis cyclins and cyclin dependent kinases are degraded in peroxisomes.

1. Hypoxia and Ischemia result in same type of reversible injury.
2. Inability to reverse mitochondrial function after removal of causative agent and membrane damage are two defining differences between reversible and irreversible injury.
3. Intracellular accumulation of lactic acidosis is a cause of chromatin clumping.
4. Intracellular accumulation of potassium causes hydropic swelling of cell.
5. Myelin figures are found only intracellularly in reversible injury.

1. Phospholipid rich amorphous densities are seen in mitochondria in irreversible cell injury.
2. Ischemia-reperfusion injury is mainly because of oxidative damage to cell.
3. Generation of oxygen free radicals occurs in cytoplasm.
4. Superoxide oxygen is the most reactive of the oxygen free radicals.
5. Cyanide kills by poisoning mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase.
6. Ionising radiation can injure the DNA and the cell by radiolysis of water and production of oxygen free radicals.

1. Cloudy swelling and hydropic swelling are the same.
2. Russell's bodies representing excessive immunoglobin in plasma cells' rough endoplasmic reticulum represent a form of hyalin change.
3. Hyalin degeneration occurs in rectus abdomin's muscle in typhoid fever.
4. Mallory's hyalin is seen in hepatocytes in cholestasis.
5. Corpora amylacea represent a form of intracellular hyaline.

1. In hepatic Steatosis, granulomas may be found in the liver.
2. In hepatic steatosis, neutral fat accumulates both inside the hepatocytes and outside.
3. Mallory's hyaline bodies are basically proteins.
4. Albinos are more prone to skin cancers.
5. Ochronosis and alkaptonuria are synonymous.

 

1. Cholestasis: Gall drainage disorders in which gall is blocked up into cisterns of the golgi apparatus.
2. Fatty liver: Hereditary or acquired disorders of lipoprotein metabolism, lipoprotein component accumulates in cisterns of golgi of hepatocytes.
3. Achondroplasia: (Chondrodystrophica fetalis, dwarfism) Impaired proteoglycan synthesis causes proteoglycan accumulation in golgi cisterns of chondrocytes.
4. Alveolar proteinosis: Surfactant proteins accumulate in golgi cisterns of type II alveolar surface cells.

1. It rarely occurs in epithelial tissue.
2. It can be called atypical hyperplasia.
3. Loss of polarity in dysplasia means disorderly arrangement of cells from basal layer to surface layer.
4. Dysplasia always progresses to carcinoma.
5. Anaplasia is a hallmark of dysplasia.

 

1. General pathology is related to basic reactions of cells and tissues to abnormal stimuli that underlie all diseases.
2. Specific responses to all stimuli of specialized organs and tissues are examined under special or systemic pathology.
3. Etiology and pathogenesis are synonymous.
4. In modern terms, intrinsic or genetic and environmental are the two groups of etiological agents of diseases.
5. Understanding pathogenesis of cystic fibrosis involves knowing the gene responsible for its causation.
6. Morphological changes in a diseased organ have nothing to do with diagnosis of etiological process.
   11
7. Molecular techniques like DNA microassays and immunological approaches for analysis diseases are no more helpful in studying diseases than traditional morphological methods.
8. Rudolf Virchow has no contribution to modern pathology.
9. Study of origins, molecular mechanisms and structural changes of cell injury alone are enough to understand morphological and clinical patterns of tissue and organ injury.

 

1. Atrophy involves decrease in number of cells of an organ.
2. Adaptation, reversible injury and cell death are separate events not interlinked and can occur independently or each other.
3. Cell death can be normal.
4. Necrosis can be physiological as apoptosis can be pathological (abnormal).
5. Calcification is always pathological.
6. Cells exposed to even sublethal or chronic stimuli are always damaged.
7. Cellular aging occurs with cumulative sublethal injury with increasing life span.

1. What are the major molecular mechanisms of cellular adaptations?
2. Do estrogens have any effect on (1) DNA synthesis of uterine epithelial cells (2) Structural components of myometrial cells?
3. In hormonal hyperplasia of physiological type, some hormones may themselves act as growth factors—True or false.
4. Compensatory hyperplasia of physiological type in liver occurs only by proliferation of remaining cells—True or false.
5. Some bone marrow cells can give rise to liver cells—True or false.

1. Those coding transcription factors (C-fos, C-jun)
2. These coding growths factors (TGF-b, insulin like GF-1, IGF-1) fibrolast growth factor.
3. These coding vasoactive agents (alfa-adrenergic agonist, endothelin-1, angiotensin II)

1. In hypertrophied cardiac muscle fibers, b myosin chain production mostly replaces alpha-myosin heavy chain production. This leads to decreased myosin ATP-ase activity. This leads to slow utilization of ATP by myosin and then slower contraction of individual fibers. So in a given time lesser ATP's are used and heart rate decreases (efficiency of myosin is more).
2. Re-exprasion of early developmental gives like atrial natriuretic peptide in ventrides occur. (In embryo, ANP gene is expressed in both atrium and ventricle. After birth, oly in atrium). ANP is a peptide hormone that causes increased slat and water loss by kidneys leading to decreased hemodynamic load on stressed heart.
   18

 

1. Genetic programming of metabolism, differentiation and specialization.
2. Constraints because of neighboring cells.
3. Availability of metabolic substracts.
   The narrow range of functioning is the steady state or homeostasis. Within this narrow range there is continuous 20change—in one of different metabolites and other substances in the cell.

1. Mechanical triggers (stretch).
2. Trophic triggers.
   The trophic triggers are chiefly growth factors (IGF-α) and vasoactive amines (angiotension II, DC-adrenergic organists). The latter are produced by nonmyocyte cells and myocytes themselves.

1. An isoelectric or flat electroencephalogram for 24 hours.
2. Two angiographic studies performed ½ an hour apart demonstrating absent cerebral circulation.
3. Irreversible absence of spontaneous respiration.
4. Aflexia (loss of corneal and papillary reflexes).

1. Sudden death from uncertain or unnatural causes.
2. Occupational exposure to certain pathogens.
   The procedure is ordered by ensurer. This type of insurance autopsy to resolve insurance claim is almost never refused by next of kin.

• short arm – p (for petit)
• long arm – q.

• Total number of chromosomes.
• Sex chromosome status.
• Applicable aberrations.

1. Copying the program—DNA replication.
2. Repairing program defect—DNA repair.
3. Using subprograms to create protein (Structure and functional).

1. Skin atrophy (→Thinning of skin)→ an adaptive reaction of excessive cornification and hyperpigmentation is induced.
   Mitotic dysfunction in skin cells: Skin cancers. Clinically the→following lesions are seen:
   • Dry scaly skin (Xeroderma) with mottled hyperpigmentation.
   • It is a precusor of skin cancer. Later multiple skin tumors such as basal cell Ca, squamous cell Ca and malignant melanoma develop.

1. UVA → 280 to 400 mm
2. UVB → 280 to 320 mm→ to cause cutaneous cancers.
3. UVC → 200 to 280 mm filtered by ozone layer.

1. Recognition of DNA lesion.
2. Incision of damaged portion on both sides of lesion.
3. Removal of damaged nucleotide.
4. Synthesis of normal nucleotide patch.
5. It is ligation to DNA.

1. Inherited inability to repair UVB damaged DNA.
   XP is a heterogenous disease with at least 7 variants each caused by a defect in one of several genes involved in NER. There is extreme photosensitivity and 2000 fold increased risk of skin cancers in sun exposed skin.
2. UVB also causes mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes.

1. Proliferating cells double their DNA in synthesis phase and just before mitosis become tetraploid.
2. Where mitosis fails to occur after the synthesis phase or is followed by several additional synthesis phases. 27This occurs in some endocrine gland cells like thyroid.
   As a morphological sign of stress induced adaptative reactive as in.
   Barbiturate above: Increased liver metabolism results in liver cells polyploidy.
   Cardiac valvular defects: Mycocardium works harder and produces polyploidy.

1. Variability in size of nucleus (nuclear polymorphism) larger cell nucleus indicates cellular activity and smaller nucleus indicates cellular inactivity.
2. Variability in nuclear chromatin content. (Nuclear polychromasia).

 

1. Hypothyroidism and scurvy cause delayed wound healing.
2. Ultraviolet light promotes healing.
3. Cerebral cortex and myocardium can regenerate after injury.
4. Fibrinoid necrosis occurs in TB.
5. Enzymatic lysis of adipose tissue causes fat necrosis.

1. The myofibroblastic differentiation of fibroblast causes contraction of granulation tissue.
2. Endarteritis obliterans and leukemia can be caused by radiation exposure for a long time.
3. Apoptosis is pathological event.
4. Apoptosis is an energy dependent pigmentation of DNA by non-lysosomal endonucleases.

1. Endothelial cells and plasma cells are capable of phagocytosis of particulate matter in acute inflammation.
2. Lymphocytes and plasma cells contribute in chromic inflammation.
3. In vascular phase of inflammatory response, neutrophils and monocytes move towards periphery of microcirculatory vessels a process called pavementing.
4. T-lymphocytes produce antibodies.
5. Transudate is noninflammatory fluid with few cellular elements.

1. Unidirectional movement of leukocytes towards a stimulus is called diapedesis.
2. Macrophages are found in glomeruli.
3. Hepatocytes have greater regenerative capacity than myocardial cells.
4. Mast cells have metachromatic granules.

1. Features of acute inflammation are in following chronological order:
   1. Contraction of arterioles
   2. Arteriolar dilatation
   3. Active hyperemia
   4. Inflammatory exudates
   5. Swelling and pain
   6. Slowing of blood flow.
2. Cytoplasmic micropinocytotic vesicles are increased for increasing membrane permeability in acute inflammation.
3. C3a, C5a, 5-HT, Kallikrein, PGE2 are involved in increased vascular permeability.
4. In a granuloma, there is polymorphonuclear leukocytosis, cell debris and fibrin.
5. Collagen type found in dermis, tendon, bone, cornea, and dentin is type IV.

1. Fab fragment consists of light chain and part of heavy chain.
2. Papain digestion of monomeric immunoglobulin results in production of an antibody binding fragment.
3. Fc, Fragment consists of C-terminal ends of heavy chains.

1. IgM class specific antibody production is a primary antibody response.
2. IgA class antibody has 4 J-chains.
3. Mast cells degranulation is a property of IgE.
4. Lymphocyte surface antigen receptor is a property of IgD. The deep (or para) cortex is the T-lymphocyte zone of lymph node and enlarges during antigenic stimulation.
   32
5. The deep (or para) cortex is the T-lymphocyte zone of lymph node and enlarges during antigenic stimulation.

1. Helper T-lymphocytes and T4 positive cells.
2. Cells bearing both T4 and T9 are common thymocytes.
3. Prothymocytes are T10 positive cells.
4. Suppressor T-lymphocytes are T9 positive cells.
5. In the unstimulated lymph node, there are localized aggregates of lymphocytes in superficial cortex.

1. Following antigenic stimulation, para cortex enlarges resulting in B-lymphocyte proliferation.
2. Macrophages have a surface receptor for C3b.
3. C5a promotes emigration and accumulation of neutrophil polymorphs and macrophages.
4. Extrinsic allergic alveolitis is an immune complex, Arthus (type 3) reaction to bacterial spores on mouldy hay.
5. Rheumatoid arthritis is an organ specific autoimmune disease.

1. In Di-George syndrome, there is defective B-cell function.
2. In infantile sex-linked agammaglobulinemia there is selective B-cell defect (Bruton type).
3. In severe combined immuno deficiency, there is defective B-cell and T-cell function.
4. Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome is characterized by abnormal platelets and defective T-cell function alone.

 

1. Hypothyroidism and scurvy cause delayed wound healing.
2. Ultraviolet light promotes healing.
3. Cerebral cortex and myocardium can regenerate after injury.
4. Fibrinoid necrosis occurs in TB.
5. Enzymatic lysis of adipose tissue causes fat necrosis.

1. The myofibroblastic differentiation of fibroblast causes contraction of granulation tissue.
2. Endarteritis obliterans and leukemia can be caused by radiation exposure for a long time.
3. Apoptosis is pathological event.
4. Apoptosis is an energy dependent pigmentation of DNA by non-lysosomal endonucleases.

1. Endothelial cells and plasma cells are capable of phagocytosis of particulate matter in acute inflammation.
2. Lymphocytes and plasma cells contribute in chromic inflammation.
3. In vascular phase of inflammatory response, neutrophils and monocytes move towards periphery of microcirculatory vessels a process called pavementing.
4. T-lymphocytes produce antibodies.
5. Transudate is noninflammatory fluid with few cellular elements.

1. Unidirectional movement of leukocytes towards a stimulus is called diapedesis.
2. Macrophages are found in glomeruli.
3. Hepatocytes have greater regenerative capacity than myocardial cells.
4. Mast cells have metachromatic granules.

1. Features of acute inflammation are in following chronological order:
   1. Contraction of arterioles
   2. Arteriolar dilatation
   3. Active hyperemia
   4. Inflammatory exudates
   5. Swelling and pain
   6. Slowing of blood flow.
2. Cytoplasmic micropinocytotic vesicles are increased for increasing membrane permeability in acute inflammation.
3. C3a, C5a, 5-HT, Kallikrein, PGE2 are involved in increased vascular permeability.
4. In a granuloma, there is polymorphonuclear leukocytosis, cell debris and fibrin.
5. Collagen type found in dermis, tendon, bone, cornea, and dentin is type IV.

1. Fab fragment consists of light chain and part of heavy chain.
2. Papain digestion of monomeric immunoglobulin results in production of an antibody binding fragment.
3. Fc, Fragment consists of C-terminal ends of heavy chains.

1. IgM class specific antibody production is a primary antibody response.
2. IgA class antibody has 4 J-chains.
3. Mast cells degranulation is a property of IgE.
4. Lymphocyte surface antigen receptor is a property of IgD. The deep (or para) cortex is the T-lymphocyte zone of lymph node and enlarges during antigenic stimulation.
5. The deep (or para) cortex is the T-lymphocyte zone of lymph node and enlarges during antigenic stimulation.

1. Helper T-lymphocytes and T4 positive cells.
2. Cells bearing both T4 and T9 are common thymocytes.
3. Prothymocytes are T10 positive cells.
4. Suppressor T-lymphocytes are T9 positive cells.
5. In the unstimulated lymph node, there are localized aggregates of lymphocytes in superficial cortex.

1. Following antigenic stimulation, para cortex enlarges resulting in B-lymphocyte proliferation.
2. Macrophages have a surface receptor for C3b.
3. C5a promotes emigration and accumulation of neutrophil polymorphs and macrophages.
4. Extrinsic allergic alveolitis is an immune complex, Arthus (type 3) reaction to bacterial spores on mouldy hay.
5. Rheumatoid arthritis is an organ specific autoimmune disease.

1. In Di-George syndrome, there is defective B-cell function.
2. In infantile sex-linked agammaglobulinemia there is selective B-cell defect (Bruton type).
3. In severe combined immuno deficiency, there is defective B-cell and T-cell function.
4. Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome is characterized by abnormal platelets and defective T-cell function alone.

   

1. Heparin mediates type I hypersensitivity (Anaphylactic reaction).
2. Pernicious anemia and Grave's disease are examples of immune complex diseases.
3. Contact dermatitis is an immune complex disease.
4. CREST syndrome is a form of scleroderma.
5. SLE is characterized by primary immune deficiency.

1. Pneumocystis carinii infection can present with osteomyelitis.
2. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) can present with CD4 counts more than 200.
3. Common Variable Immunodeficiency (CVI) can present with recurrent giardial infections.
4. Average duration of latent phase in AIDS is 2 years.

 

1. P-selectin is normally present in Weibel-Palade bodies in endothelial cells.
2. Defects in cell adhesion is found in diabetes and corticosteroid use.
3. Myeloperoxidase deficiency is associated with increased incidence of bacterial infections.
4. Histamine is produced by mast cells and basophils only.
5. IL-I is responsible for pain and prostaglandin E2 for pyrexial response.

1. Apoptosis is generally accompanied by inflammatory response.
2. bcl-2 and P-53 are both proapoptotic genes.
3. Caspases activate proteases.
4. Councilman bodies are found in alcoholic hepatitis.
5. Fat necrosis is also called saponification.

1. Tissue based basophils are called mast cells.
2. Interstitial infiltration is a common response to viral infectious agents.
3. Syncytia formation is a response seen in cytopathic/cytoproliferative inflammation.
4. Keloid is characterized by production of collgen of predominantly type IV.
5. Basement membrane has a net positive charge.