Human Body

GD  Mogli

PART–I

1Anatomy, Physiology, Medical Terms, and Medical Examination and Diagnostic Techniques

Human Body1

CELL

INTRODUCTION

3A cell is mass of a protoplasm containing a nucleus. It is the unit structure and the fundamental part of life, which carries various functions such as reproduction, respiration, excretion and adaptation to the environment. The human body is made up of a trillion number of cells of different types. The size of the cell is about 10 to 30 μm in diameter.

All cells are similar in that they contain a gelatinous substance composed of water, protein, sugar, acids, fats and various minerals. This substance is called protoplasm. Several parts of a cell are described below and pictured schematically.

STRUCTURE OF CELL (FIG. 1.1)

Cell membrane—covering or outer layer of the cell which protects the internal environment and determines what passes in and out of the cell.
Protoplasm—a white fluid, like the yolk of an egg, which consists of water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids and carbohydrates. The protoplasm forms the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
Cytoplasm is the protoplasmic material outside the nucleus. It triggers the work of the cell such as contraction in the muscle cell and transmitting impulses in the nerve cell. The cytoplasm contains mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, lysosomes, Golgi bodies, and the centrosome.
Mitochondria: It is responsible for the production of energy in the cell by breaking up the complex food structure into simpler substances. This process is called catabolism. It is also called as, kitchen cell (power house).4

Fig. 1.1: Structure of cell
Endoplasmic reticulum: A tubule like structure. It contains small bodies called ribosomes which help to make substances (proteins) for the cells, this process is called anabolism.
Nucleus: It is the controlling structure of the cell. It controls the cell reproduction, and contains genetic material which determines the functioning and structure of the cell.
Chromosomes: There are 23 pairs of chromosomes, each chromosome consists of a chain of small units called genes made up of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (hereditary information) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Out of 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 pairs are autosomes and 1 pair is sex chromosome which decides the sex. A female has 2 X (X,X) chromosomes whereas the male has 1X, 1Y chromosomes.

FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL

Absorption: The ability of the cell to absorb or take in oxygen and food substances.
Nutrition: The intake of food substances by the cell.
Growth: It provides the metabolic process to enable the cell to grow to its full size and will be able to function correctly.
Reproduction: On reaching maturity, the cell will divide to form two smaller cells.
Removal of waste products: The removal of waste products produced during metabolism.
Movement: Many cells have the power of movement.

CELL DIVISION

Division of cells are for the growth of the organism and for the replacement of damaged cells. There are two types of cell division:

Mitosis

A process of cell division which produces two new daughter cells (identical to the parent cells), e.g. plants. This involves a series of changes in which there is a rearrangement of centrioles and chromosomes so that each of the two new cells has a nucleus with 23 pairs of chromosomes. Mitosis is the common type of cell division that occurs in the body cells. It consists of four phases—prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

Prophase: The centrosome divides and the centrioles moves to the opposite poles of the cells with the spindle fibers.

Metaphase: The chromosomes align themselves at the center of the nucleus and become attached to the spindle fibers.

Anaphase: Each chromosome splits into two chromosomes. The separated chromosomes move towards the opposite poles of the cell. The centrioles are divided to form new centrosome.

Telophase: A new nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes, and the spindle fiber disappear. The cytoplasm and cell membrane constrict. Finally, the cell splits into two identical cells.

Meiosis

Cell division occurring in maturation of sex cells, wherein over two successive cell division occur. Each daughter nucleus receives half the number of chromosomes typically to the somatic cells of the species.

The cell division occurring in the human reproductive system is called meiosis. Each person, male or female has 23 pairs of chromosomes comprising of 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes or somatic chromosomes. In the meiosis cell division, the daughter cell receives equal number of chromosomes from the parent cells, i.e. 22 pairs of autosomes from father and mother, the male has XY sex chromosomes. Whereas the mother has X and X chromosomes. The sex of a child clearly depends on whether it inherits X or Y chromosome from its father.

TISSUE FLUID

Tissue fluids are of two types: intracellular and extracellular. The fluid inside the cell is called intracellular fluid while the fluid outside the 6cell is called extracellular fluid. Tissue fluid acts as a sort of middle man between the blood and tissues, supplying food and oxygen to the cell and removing waste products from the cell.

TISSUES

A tissue is a group of similar cells working together to do a specific job. A histologist is one who specializes in the study of tissues.

Tissues can be classified into four major types:

Epithelium
Connective tissue
Muscular tissue
Nervous tissue.

Epithelium

The various types of epithelial tissues are as follows:

Simple Squamous Epithelium

A single layer of flat cells found in alveoli of lungs, the lining of the interior of the heart and blood vessels and the lymphatic vessels.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

It is composed of cells which are flat and round. It is found in all parts of the body. The skin is composed of stratified squamous epithelium.

Transitional Epithelium

Cells which provide water tightness. It is found on the lining of urinary tract.

Columnar Epithelium

Cylindrical-shaped cells found in the secretory glands of the body.

Ciliated Epithelium

The free surface of each cell surrounded by fine hair like structures called cilia. It is found in the lining of (nasal cavity, trachea and bronchi) the respiratory system.

Connective Tissue

Connective tissues are fat (also called adipose tissue), cartilage (elastic, fibrous tissues attached to bones), bone, or blood tissues. They are present in different forms in the body. It is a jelly like substance and is hard.

Fibrous Tissue

There are two types of fibrous tissues:

White fibrous tissue
Yellow elastic tissue.

White fibrous tissue: It consists of bundles of white fibers which cannot stretch. It is found in tendons, ligaments, dura mater and outer layer of the pericardium.

Yellow elastic tissue: It consists of fibers which can stretch. It is found in the walls of arteries, bronchi and alveoli of lungs.

Areolar Tissue

Supporting tissue of the body. Found under the skin, mucous membrane and surrounding blood vessels and nerves.

Adipose Tissue

Found in all parts of the body where fat is deposited or stored, especially under the skin and around the eyes, heart and kidneys.

Cartilage

It is a flexible tissue found mainly in the skeleton. There are three different types of cartilage:

Hyaline cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Elastic cartilage.

Hyaline cartilage: It is bluish white tissue with a smooth glassy surface. It is found covering the ends of the bones, where they form joints (articular cartilage).

Fibrocartilage: It contains white fibrous tissue. It is found in intervertebral disks and semilunar cartilage of the knee joint where great strength combined with certain amount of elasticity is required.

Yellow elastic cartilage: It contains yellow elastic fibers and it is found in the epiglottis and pinna of the ear.

Muscular Tissue

The muscles are structures, which give the power of movements. Muscles are composed of thousands of elongated cells, called muscle fibers. Each contains a small nucleus. Bundles of muscle fibers lie side by side like threads. There are three different types of muscle tissue, they are voluntary, involuntary and cardiac.

Voluntary muscles are found in arms, legs and parts of the body where movement is voluntary. All the muscles attached to the skeleton 8are of this type and their functions are to move the bones at their respective joints and to help in maintaining the posture of the limbs and body as a whole. The microscopic structure of this muscle is striped in structure, i.e. white and black bands, hence it is also called striated muscle.

Involuntary muscles are found in the internal organs and structures of the body such as stomach, intestine, bladder, bronchi, blood vessels, and is, therefore, sometimes called visceral muscles. It cannot be consciously controlled and its nervous supply comes from the involuntary or autonomic nervous system. It is also called nonstriated or plain muscle.

The cardiac muscle is a special type of muscle found only in the heart. Although, it is an involuntary muscle, it has the form of striated muscle. It has the special property, not observed in other varieties of muscles, of automatic rhythmic contraction which can occur independently of its nervous supply.

Nervous Tissue

Nerve tissues conduct impulses all over the body. The muscles are structures which give the body the power of movements; almost every movement is governed by some portion of the nervous system which acts as a medium between brain and muscle.

ORGANS

Organs are structures composed of several types of tissues. For example, an organ like stomach is composed of muscular tissues, nerve tissues, and glandular epithelial tissues. The medical term for internal organ is viscera (singular: viscus). Examples:

Eye	Ear	Nose	Tongue
Heart	Lung	Stomach	Intestine
Hand	Leg	Liver	Spleen

SYSTEMS

Systems are groups of organs working together to perform essential fundamental functions of the individual. The different types of systems are skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, lymphatic, respiratoy, digestive, urinary, reproductive systems. Although some systems are functioning individually, the functions of various systems are very closely connected and are dependent on each other. For example, mouth, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines are organs which compose the digestive system.

The main systems and their organs of the body are as given in Table 1.1.9

Table 1.1 The main systems and their organs

S.No.	Name of the system	Organs/parts
1.	Muscular system	There are three types of muscle tissues: Skeletal, voluntary or striated muscle Visceral, involuntary or smooth muscle Cardiac muscle.
2.	Skeletal system	Bones—there are 206 bones in an adult skeletal system Joints Fibrous or fixed joints, Cartilaginous or slightly movable joints Synovial or freely movable joints.
3.	Nervous system Sense organs	The nervous system consist of: Brain Spinal cord Nerves. Sense organs Eye Ear Nose Tongue Skin or integumentary system
4.	Endocrine system (ductless gland)	Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands Thymus gland Pancreas (islets of Langerhans) Adrenal gland Sex glands (ovaries and testes).
5.	Cardiovascular system or Circulatory system Blood and blood groups	Cardiovascular system Heart Aorta, artery, and arteriole Vena cava, vein, and venule Capillaries. Blood and blood group Blood composition Plasma Blood cells Leukocytes or white blood cells Erythrocytes or red blood cells Thrombocytes or platelets Blood groups Blood group “A” Blood group “B” Blood group “AB” Blood group “O” Rhesus factor (Rh) Rhesus factor positive (+) Rhesus factor negative (-).
6.	Lymphatic system	Lymph vessels Lymph nodes and other lymphatic tissues Spleen Thymus gland.
7.	Respiratory system	Nose Nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses. Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi (bronchus-singular) Bronchioles Alveoli (alveolus-singular) Lung capillaries (bloodstream).
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8.	Digestive system	Oral cavity (mouth) Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Enteron (small intestine) Duodenum Jejunum Ileum Colon (large intestine) Cecum Ascending colon Transverse colon Descending colon Sigmoid colon Rectum Anus. Accessory organs Salivary glands Liver Gallbladder Pancreas.
9.	Urinary system	Kidneys Ureters Urinary bladder Urethra.
10.	Reproductive system	Male: Testes Scrotum Seminiferous tubules Epididymis Vas deferens Seminal vesicles Ejaculatory duct Prostate gland Penis Urethra. Female: Ovaries Fallopian tubes Uterus Vagina Vulva Cervix Labia majora Labia minora Hymen Mammary glands (accessory organ).

Fig. 1.2: Body cavities

BODY CAVITIES (FIG. 1.2)

A body cavity is a space within the body which contains internal organs (viscera). Some of the important viscera contained within those cavities are listed in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Some of the important viscera contained within those cavities

S.No.	Name of the cavity	Organs/parts
1.	Cranial cavity	Brain
2.	Thoracic cavity	Lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus gland, aorta The thoracic cavity can be divided into two smaller cavities: The pleural cavity—the areas surrounding the lungs. Each pleural cavity is lined with a double-folded membrane called pleura; visceral pleura is closer to the lungs, and parietal pleura is closer to the outer wall of the pleural cavity. The mediastinum cavity—the area between the lungs. It contains the heart, aorta, trachea, esophagus, and thymus gland.
3.	Abdominal cavity	Stomach, small and large intestines, spleen, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
4.	Pelvic cavity	Ureters, urinary bladder, urethra; uterus and vagina in the female.
5.	Spinal cavity	Nerves of the spinal cord runs through vertebrae

ANATOMICAL DIVISIONS OF THE BODY (FIG. 1.3)

Anatomical divisions of the abdomen are labeled in Figure 1.3. These divisions are used in anatomy texts to describe the regions in which organs and structures are found while documenting the patient care. The names of the divisions are:
Right hypochondriac regions (upper lateral regions beneath the ribs)
Epigastric region (regions of the stomach)
Left hypochondriac regions (upper lateral regions beneath the ribs)
Right lumbar region
Umbilical region (region of the navel or umbilicus)
Left lumbar region
Right iliac fossa
Hypogastric region (lower middle region below the umbilicus)
Left iliac fossa.

CLINICAL DIVISIONS OF THE ABDOMEN (FIG. 1.4)

The following terms are used to describe the divisions of the abdomen when a patient is examined in clinic or bedside:

Right upper quadrant, RUQ
Left upper quadrant, LUQ
Right lower quadrant, RLQ
Left lower quadrant, LLQ.

ANATOMICAL DIVISIONS OF THE BACK (SPINAL COLUMN)

See Table 1.3 and Figure 1.5.

Table 1.3 Anatomical divisions of the back (spinal column)

S.No.	Division of the back	Abbreviation	Location
1.	Cervical vertebrae	C	Neck region. There are 7 cervical vertebrae (C1-C7)
2.	Thoracic vertebrae	T or D (Dorsal)	Chest region. There are 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1-T12). Each bone is joined to a rib
3.	Lumbar vertebrae	L	Loin or flank region (between the ribs and the hip bone). There are 5 lumbar vertebrae (L1-L5)
4.	Sacral vertebrae	S	Five bones (S1-S5) are fused to form one bone, the sacrum
5.	Coccygeal	Nil	The coccyx (tailbone) is small bone composed of 4 fused pieces

Fig. 1.3: Anatomical divisions of the body

Fig. 1.4: Clinical divisions of the abdomen

Fig. 1.5: Anatomical divisions of the back (spinal column)

PLANES OF THE BODY (FIG. 1.6)

A plane is an imaginary flat cross-section. The following terms are used to describe the planes of the body (Table 1.4):

Table 1.4 Planes of the body

S.No.	Name of the planes	Explanation
1.	Frontal	Vertical plane which divides the body or structure into anterior and posterior portions.
2.	Sagittal	Lengthwise vertical plane which divides the body or structure into right and left portions. The midsagittal plane divides the body into right and left halves.
3.	Transverse	Plane running across the body parallel to the ground (horizontal). It divides the body or structure into upper and lower portions.15

Fig. 1.6: Planes of the body

POSITIONAL AND DIRECTIONAL TERMS OF THE BODY (TABLE 1.5)

Table 1.5 Positional and directional terms of the body

Position	Description of the position
Anterior	In front of the body
Posterior	At the back of the body
Central	Pertaining to the center
Deep	Away from the surface
Superficial	Near the surface
Distal	Away from the beginning of the structure or away from the center
Proximal	Pertaining to the beginning of a structure
Inferior	Below another structure
Superior	Above another structure
Lateral	Pertaining to the sides
Medial	Near to the median of the body (structure)
Supine	Lying on the back
Prone	Lying on the belly
Afferent	Towards the structure
Efferent	Away from the structure

16MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY

OBJECTIVES IN STUDYING THE MEDICAL LANGUAGE

To analyze words structurally.
To correlate and understand word elements with the basics of anatomy, physiology, and diseases of human body.
To pronounce and write correct spelling of medical terms.

Basic Word Structure

Studying medical words is similar to learning of a new language. The words at first look strange and complicated although they may stand for commonly known English terms. The words gastralgia, means ‘stomach ache,” and ophthalmologist, means “eye doctor,” are some examples.

The medical language is fascinatingly logical in each term, complex or simple, can be broken into basic components and then understood.

These basic components of medical words are:

CHIEF SOURCES OF MEDICAL WORDS

ANGLO-SAXON (OLD ENGLISH)

These words are from old English, which are mostly anatomical terms.17

Examples:

Arm	Back	Bladder	Blood	Cheek	Chest
Chin	Ear	Eye	Finger	Hair	Nose
Thumb, etc.

GREECO-ROMAN (GREEK AND LATIN)

These words are from Greek and Latin languages.

Examples:

Marrow—the word marrow is derived from the Latin word medulla.

Myelitis (G) originating from the Greek word myelos. The word myelitis is the inflammation of marrow.

Crani (G and L)	:	Skull
Cerebro (L)	:	Brain
Illi (L)	:	Ilium
Rhin (G)	:	Nose
Pneumo (G)	:	Lungs, air

ARABIC

Most of these words are used to describe chemical substances.

Examples:

Sharab	:	Sweet beverage (syrup)
Matter	:	Mother
Alcohol	:	Something subtle

MODERN GERMAN

These words are derived from French (Modern German).

Example:

Fahrenheit (German Physicist) for thermometer

Kernicterus

Yellow (Jaundice)

COLORS

S.No.	Color	Medical terms	Examples
1.	White	Albus	Albinism
2.	White	Leukos	Leukocyte
3.	White	Candidus	Candidiasis
4.	Black	Melan	Melanoma
5.	Black	Niger	Nigrometer
6.	Red	Erythros	Erythrocyte
7.	Red	Ruber	Rubericyte
8.	Yellow	Flavus	Flavism
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9.	Yellow	Xanthos	Xathoma
10.	Green	Chloros	Chlorhydria
11.	Green	Glaucos	Glaucoma
12.	Blue	Cynos	Cyanosis
13.	Brown	Cirrhos	Cirrhosis
14.	Violet	Iodes	Iodine
15.	Purple	Porphyros	Porphyrinuria
16.	Ashy	Cinerous	Cinerea
17.	Golden	Aureus	Aueromycin

NUMERALS

S.No.	Numerals	Medical terms	Examples
1.	Half	Semi	Semilunar
2.	Half	Hemi	Hemiplegia
3.	First	Primus	Primigravida
4.	One	Unus	Unilateral
5.	Single	Monos	Monocular
6.	Two	Duo	Duodenum
7.	Second	Secundus	Secundine
8.	Two at a time	Bini	Binocular
9.	Twice	Bi, Dis, Di	Dislocation
10.	Three	Tri	Tricuspid
11.	Four	Quadri, Tetra	Quadriplegia, Tetralogy
12.	Five	Quinique	Quintuplet
13.	Six	Sex, Hex	Sexdigitate, Hexadactylism
14.	Seven	Hepta	Heptadactylia
15.	Eight	Octa	Octigravida
16.	Nine	Non	Nonipara
17.	Ten	Deca	Decameter
18.	One hundred	Centi	Centimeter
19.	One thousand	Milli	Millimeter
20.	10,000	Myri
21.	1,00,000	Mega
22.	1/1,00,000	Micro

ELEMENTS OF MEDICAL TERMS

SUFFIXES AND COMPOUNDING ELEMENTS

True suffixes refer to a syllable denoting a preposition or adverb attached to the end of a word, root, or stem to modify its meaning. Many endings are adjectives or nouns added to a root to form compound words. They may be combining forms or pseudo-suffixes. To simplify learning, the modifying endings have been classified according to their meanings into diagnostic, operative and symptomatic suffixes and compounding elements.

Diagnostic Suffixes and Compounding Elements

Suffix	Medical term	Definition
-aemia (G) blood	Hyperglycemia	High blood sugar
-cele (G)	Cystocele	Hernia of the bladder
hernia, tumor,	Hydrocele	Serous tumor as of testis
protrusion	Myelocele	Protrusion of spinal cord through the vertebrae
-ectasis (G)	Atelectasis - neonatorum	Imperfect expansion of lungs at birth
expansion, dilatation	Bronchiectasis	Abnormal dilatation of a bronchus or bronchi
-graphy (G)	Electrocardiography	The recording of the electricity flowing through the heart
act of recording or writing	Echocardiography	A diagnostic procedure in which pulses of high frequency sound waves (ultrasound) are transmitted into the chest and echoes returning from the surfaces of the heart are electronically plotted and recorded.
-iasis (G)	Lithiasis	Formation of stones
	Cholelithiasis	Presence of calculi in the gallbladder
condition, formation of, presence of	Nephrolithiasis	Stones present in the kidney
-itis (G)	Carditis	Inflammation of the heart
	Gastritis	Inflammation of the stomach
inflammation	Poliomyelitis	Inflammation of the gray matter of the spinal cord
-malacia (G)	Encephalomalacia	Softening of the brain
	Osteomalacia	Softening of the bones
softening	softening Splenomalacia	Softening of the spleen
-megaly (G)	Cardiomegaly	Enlargement of the heart
	Hepatomegaly	Enlargement of the liver
enlargement	Splenomegaly	Enlargement of the spleen
-oma (G)	Adenoma	Glandular tumor
	Carcinoma	Malignant tumor of epithelial tissue
tumor	Sarcoma	Malignant tumor of connective tissue
-osis (G)	Arteriosclerosis	Hardening of the arteries
condition, diseases, increase	Neurosis	Functional disorder of the nervous system
-pathy (G)	Adenopathy	Any glandular disease
	Myopathy	Any diseases of a muscle
disease	Myelopathy	Any pathologic disorder of the spinal cord
-ptosis (G)	Blepharoptosis	Drooping or (downward displacement) of the eyelid
	Gastroptosis	Downward displacement of the stomach
falling	Nephroptosis	Downward displacement of the kidney
-rhexis (G)	Angiorhexis	Rupture of a blood vessel or lymphatic
rupture	Cardiorhexis	Rupture of the heart

Operative Suffixes and Compounding Elements

Suffix	Medical term	Definition
-centesis (G)	Paracentesis	Puncture of a cavity
puncture	Thoracentesis	Aspiration of the pleural cavity
-ectomy (G)	Myomectomy	Excision of a tumor of the muscle
excision	Tonsillectomy	Removal of tonsils
-desis (G)	Arthrodesis	Surgical fixation of a joint
binding fixation	Spondylosyndesis	Surgical fixation of the vertebrae
-lithotomy (G) incision for	Cholelithotomy	Incision into gallbladder for removal of stones
removal of stones	Nephrolithotomy	Incision into kidney for removal of stones
-pexy (G)	Hysteropexy	Abdominal fixation or suspension of the uterus
suspension or fixation	Orchiopexy	Fixation of an undescended testis
-plasty (G)	Arthroplasty	Reconstructive operation on joint
surgical correction plastic repair of	Hernioplasty	Plastic repair of hernia
-rrhaphy (G)	Perineorrhaphy	Suture of a lacerated perineum
suture	Staphylorrhaphy	Suture of a cleft palate
-scopy (G)	Bronchoscopy	Examination of the bronchi with an endoscope
inspection or examination	Cystoscopy	Inspection of the bladder with a cystoscope
-ostomy (G)	Colostomy	Creation of an opening into the colon through the abdominal wall
creation of a more or less permanent opening	Cystostomy	Creation of an opening into the urinary bladder through the abdomen
-otomy (G)	Antrotomy	Incision into the antrum for drainage
incision into	Thoracotomy	Opening of the chest
-tripsy (G)	Lithotripsy	Crushing of a calculus in the bladder or urethra
crushing or friction	Phrenicotripsy	Crushing of the phrenic nerve

Symptomatic Suffixes and Compounding Elements

Suffix	Medical term	Definition
-algia (G)	Gastralgia	Stomach pain
pain	Nephralgia	Renal pain
-genic (G)	Bronchogenic	Originating in the bronchi
origin	Pathogenic	Disease producing
-lysis (G)	Hemolysis	A breaking down of red blood cells
dissolution or breaking down	Neurolysis	Disintegration of nerve tissue
-osis (G)	Anisocytosis	Inequality of size of cells
increase or condition	Lymphocytosis	Excess of lymph cells
-penia (G)	Leukopenia	Abnormal decrease of leukocytes in the blood
deficiency or decrease	Neutropenia	Abnormal decrease of neutrophils in the blood
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-rrhage, -rrhagia (G)	Hemorrhage	The escape of blood from the vessels; bleeding
	Metrorrhagia	Uterine bleeding
excessive flow bursting forth	Otorrhagia	Hemorrhage from the ear
-rrhoea (G)	Metrorrhoea	A free or abnormal uterine discharge
flowing	Dysmenorrhoea	Painful menstruation
	Otorrhoea	Discharge from the ear
-spasm (G)	Chirospasm	A spasm as contraction of the hand (Writer's cramp)
involuntary contractions	Dactylospasm	Spasm or cramp in fingers or toes
-stasis (G)	Hemostasis	Interruption of blood flow through any vessel or to any anatomical area
stand still
-stenosis (G)	Aorticstenosis	A narrowing of the aortic orifice of the heart
narrowing, contraction	Mitralstenosis	A narrowing of the left atrio-ventricular orifice

ROOTS

The root stem or main body of a word indicates the organ or part of which is modified by a prefix or suffix, or both. Properly, Greek combining forms or roots should be used only with Greek prefixes and suffixes, Latin with Latin. A vowel, usually a, i, or o is often inserted between the combining forms for euphony.

Suffix	Medical term	Definition
aden (G) gland	Adenectomy Adenoma	Excision of a gland Glandular tumor
aer (G) air	Aerated Aerobic	Filled with air Pertaining to organism, which lives only in the presence of air
Angio (G) vessel	Angiotomy Angitis	Incision of blood vessels Inflammation of the blood vessels
arth (G) joint	Arthralgia Arthritis	Pain in the joints Inflammation of the joints
blephar (G) eyelid	Blepharitis Blepharoptosis	Inflammation of the eyelid Drooping of the upper eyelid
card (G) heart	Cardiology Electrocardiogram	The science of the heart A graphic record of the heart beat by an electrometer
cerebro (L) brain	Cerebromalacia Cerebrospinal	Softening of the brain Referring to brain and spinal cord
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cephal (G) head	Cephalalgia Cephalic	Headache Pertaining to the head
cerv (L) neck	Cervicectomy Cervicovesical	Excision of the neck of the uterus Relating to the cervix uteri and bladder
cheil, chil (G) lip	Cheilitis Cheiloplasty	Inflammation of the lip Plastic operation of the lip
chir (G) hand	Chiromegaly Chiroplasty	Abnormal size of the hands, wrists and ankles Plastic repair of the hand
chol (G) bile	Cholangitis Cholecyst	Inflammation of bile duct Gallbladder
chondr (G) cartilage	Chondrectomy Chondroma	Excision of a cartilage A cartilaginous tumor
cost (L) rib	Costochondral Costosternal	Pertaining to a rib and its cartilage Referring to the ribs and breast bone
crani (G,L) skull	Craniotomy Cranial	Surgical opening (incision) of the skull Pertaining to the skull
cysto (G) bladder, sac	Cyst Cystoscope	A bladder; any sac containing a liquid Instrument for interior examination of the bladder
cyt (G) cell	Cytology Erythrocyte	The study of cell life Red blood cell
dacry (G) tear	Dacryocele Dacryocyst	Protrusion of the lacrimal sac The lacrimal sac
dactyl (G)	Dactylitis	Chronic disease of bone of fingers or toe in young children
finger, toe	Dactylomegaly	Abnormal size of fingers and toes
derm (G) skin	Dermatitis Dermopathy	Inflammation of the skin Any skin disease
encephal (G) brain	Encephalitis Encephaloma	Inflammation of the brain Brain tumor
enter (G) intestine (small)	Enteritis Enterocele	Inflammation of the small intestine A hernia of the small intestine
gastr (G) stomach	Gastrectasis Gastroenteritis	Dilatation of the stomach Inflammation of the stomach and the small intestine
glyco (G) sweet	Glycemia Glycosuria	Sugar in blood Sugar in urine
hem, haemat (G) blood	Hematemesis Hemophilia	Vomiting of blood Inability of the blood to coagulate
hepat (G) liver	Hepatitis Hepatoma	Inflammation of the liver A liver tumor
hyster (G) or metr uterus	Hysterectomy Hysteropexy	Excision of the uterus Abdominal fixation of the uterus
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ile, eile, (L-G) ileum	Ileum Ileostomy	Third part of the small intestine Creation of an opening through abdomen into the ileum
ili (L) ilium	Ilium Iliosacral	The wide, upper part of the hip bone Pertaining to ilium and sacrum
leuk (G) white	Leukocyte Leukopenia	White blood cell Abnormal decrease in number of leukocyte
lip (G) fat	Lipectomy Lipemia	Excision of fatty tissues Fat in the blood
lith (G) stone	Lithiasis Lithoscope	Presence of concretions or stones Instrument for examining stone in bladder
menig (G) membrane	Meningitis Meningioma	Inflammation of the membranes of spinal cord and brain Tumor of the meninges
metr (G) or hystr uterus	Metritis Metrorrhagia	Inflammation of the uterus Bleeding from the uterus
myel (G) marrow	Myelitis Myelosarcoma	Inflammation of spinal cord or bone marrow Malignant tumor of the bone marrow
my (G) muscle	Myitis or myositis Myocardium	Inflammation of a muscle The middle and thickest layer of the heart wall
nephr (G) kidney	Nephropexy Nephrosclerosis	Surgical attachment of a floating kidney Hardening of the kidney
ophthalm (G) eye	Ophthalmology Ophthalmoscope	The study of the eye and its diseases Instrumental examination of the eye
osteo (G) bone	Osteoma Osteomalacia	A bony tumor Softening of the bone
pneum (G) lung, or air	Pneumonia Pneumothorax	Inflammation of the lungs with consolidation and exudation Introduction of air into the pleural cavity
proct (G) rectum, anus	Proctoscopy Proctopexy	Instrumental examination of the rectum Suture of the rectum to some other part
psycho (G) soul, mind	Psychiatry Psychopathy	Medical specialty treating mental and neurotic disorders Any mental disease usually related to defective character and personality
pyel (G) pelvis	Pyelitis Pyelogram	Inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney Radiogram of the ureter and renal pelvis
pyloro (G) pylorus, gatekeeper	Pylorus Pylorostenosis	Orifice between stomach and duodenum Constriction of pylorus
pyo (G) pus	Pyogenic Pyometritis	Pus forming Purulent inflammation of the uterus
radi (L)	Radiology	The study of X-rays in the diagnosis and treatment of disease
ray	Radiotherapy	The use of radiation of any type in treating diseases
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spondyl (G) vertebra	Spondylitis Spondylolisthesis (olisthesis: slipping)	Inflammation of vertebrae Forward dislocation of lumbar vertebrae with pelvic deformity
trachel (G) or cervi neck	Trachelitis Tracheloplasty	Inflammation of the cervix Plastic operation of the cervix uteri
tubercul (L)	Tuberculosis	An infectious disease marked by the formation of tubercles in any tissue
tubercle	Tuberculoma	A tuberculous abscess or tumor
viser (L) organ	Viscus Viscera	Pertaining to the internal organs Organ

PREFIXES

Prefixes are the most frequently used elements in the formation of medical terms. A prefix consists of one or two syllables placed before a word to modify its meaning. These syllables are often prepositions or adverbs. Some common prefixes are:

prefix	Medical term	Definition
ab (L) from, away from	Abductor Abnormal	That which draws away from a common center Away from or not corresponding to rule
a, an (G) without, not	Apnea Anesthesia	Temporary absence of respiration Loss of sensation
ad (L) adherence, increase, near, toward	Adductor Adrenal	That which draws toward a common center A ductless (endocrine) gland above the kidney
ante (L) before	Antenatal Antepartum	Before birth Before the onset of labor
anti (G) against	Antisepsis Antipyretic	The exclusion of putrefactive germs A drug that reduces fever
bi (L) two, both, double	Biconvex Bilateral	Having two convex surfaces as in a lens Affecting both sides
com, con, or sym (L)	Congenital defect Conjunctiva	Born with a defect, hereditary Mucous membrane which lines eyelids
together, with
contra (L) against, opposite	Contraception Contraindication	The prevention of conception A condition antagonistic to the line of treatment
dys (G) bad, difficult, painful	Dysentery	Inflammation of intestinal mucous membrane accompanied by pain
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	Dysmenorrhea Dyspepsia Dysphagia Dysphasia Dyspnea Dysuria	Painful menstruation Imperfect digestion Difficulty in swallowing Impairment of speech Labored or difficult breathing Pain or difficult urination
ec (G) out, ecto (G) outside	Ectopic pregnancy	Gestation outside the uterine cavity
ex-out	Ectropion of eyelid	Eversion as the edge of the eyelid
em, en (G)	Empyema	Pus in a body cavity, especially in the pleural cavity
in	Encephalopathy	Any disease of the brain
endo (G) within	Endocardium Endocarditis Endocrine gland Endometrium Endometritis Endoscope Endoscopy	Lining membrane of inner surface of the heart Inflammation of the endocardium A ductless gland in which an internal secretion forms The mucous membrane lining the inner surface of the uterus Inflammation of the endometrium Tubular instrument for examining cavities through natural openings Inspection of cavities by use of the endoscope
epi (G) upon, at, in addition to	Epidermis Epigastrium Epiphysis	Cuticle or outer layer of the skin Region over the pit of the stomach A center of ossification at both extremities of long bones
ex (G) out, away from, over	Exacerbation Exophthalmia Expectoration Exudate	Aggrevation of symptoms Abnormal protrusion of the eyeballs Expulsion of mucus from the lungs Accumulation of fluid due to inflammatory condition
hemi (G), or	Hemiplegia Hemiglossectomy	Paralysis of one-half of the body Removal of half a tongue
semi (L) half
hyper (G) above, excessive, beyond	Hyperacidity Hypercalcemia Hyperemisis gravidarum Hyperemia Hyperpyrexia Hypertension	An excess of acid in the stomach Excess of calcium in the blood Excessive vomiting during early pregnancy Congestion High fever (above 106 degree Fahrenheit) High blood pressure
hypo (G) beneath, below, deficient	Hypodermic injection Hypoglycemia	Injection under the skin Low blood sugar
inter (L) between	Intercostal	Between two ribs
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between meta (G)	Interfemoral Metabolism	Between the thighs The sum of all the physical and chemical processes by which living organized substance is produced and maintained
next, between	Metacarpal	Bone of the metacarpus
para, par (G) beside, around, near, abnormal	Paracentesis Parametritis Paranephritis Parathyroid	Puncture of a cavity with tapping Inflammation of the parametrium Inflammation of suprarenal capsules; of connective tissue above the kidney Ductless gland near the thyroid gland
peri (G) around, about	Pericardium Pericarditis Perimetritis Periostitis	The double membranous sac enclosing the heart Inflammation of the pericardium Inflammation of the serous membrane enveloping the uterus Inflammation of the periosteum
pre (L, G) before, in front of	Precancerous Pericardium Preeclampsia Presentation	Before the development of carcinoma Region over the heart Eclampsia before delivery (Eclampsia is major toxemia during pregnancy) Manner of the fetus presenting itself at the cervix
pyo (G) pus	Pyocele Pyocyst Pyonephritis	A collection of pus in the scrotum A cyst containing pus Prulent inflammation of the kidney
post (G)	Postpartum Postnatal	After delivery After birth
retro (L) backward, behind, back of	Retroflexion Retroperitoneal Retroversion	A bending or flexing backward; for example of the uterus Located behind the peritoneum A state of being turned back; for example, of the uterus
semi (L) half	Semicoma Semilunar valves	Mild degree of coma Half-moon shaped valves of the aorta and pulmonary
sub (L) under, beneath, below super,	Subclavicular Subcutaneous Suppuration Supernatant	Beneath the clavicle Beneath the skin The process of pus formation Floating on surface
supra (L) above, beyond, superior	Supraoccipital Suprapubic cystotomy Suprarenal	Situated above the occiput Surgical opening into the bladder from above the symphysis pubis Adrenal gland above the kidney
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sym, sym (G) with, along, together, beside	Symphysis of pubis Synarthrosis Syndactlism	Fusion of pubic bone on midline anteriorly An immovable joint A fusion of two or more fingers or toes; webbing
toxi (G) poison	Toxicology Toxicosis Toxicophobia	The science or study of poisons Any diseased condition due to poisoning Irrational fear of being poisoned
trans (L) across, over	Transection Transfusion Transurethral prostatectomy	Incision across the long axis; cross section Injection of the blood of one person into the blood vessel of another Excision of the prostate gland through the urethra
tri (G) three	Tricuspid Trifacial Trigone	Having three cusps or points; tricuspid valve Fifth cranial nerve A triangular space, especially that of the lower part of the urinary bladder

COMMON ABBREVIATIONS

S.No.	Abbreviation	Term
1.	ACC	Adenoid cystic carcinoma
2.	AMA	Against medical advice
3.	Ant.	Anterior
4.	b.i.d.	Twice a day (bis in die)
5.	BID	Brought in dead
6.	C	Centrigrade (Centum gradus)
7.	CA(Ca)	Carcinoma
8.	CC	Chief complaint
9.	CSSD	Central sterile supply department
10.	DOA	Date of admission
11.	DOD	Date of discharge or death
12.	Dx	Diagnosis
13.	ER	Emergency room
14.	EUA	Examination under anesthesia
15.	FB	Foreign body
16.	F/U	Follow-up
17.	FUO	Fever of unknown origin
18.	GA	General anesthesia
19.	GP	General practitioner
20.	GS	General surgery
21.	GSH	Glomerulus stimulating hormone
22.	HPI	History of present illness
23.	ICD	International classification of disease
24.	IMP	Improved
25.	I and O	Intake and output
26.	IP	Inpatient
27.	IV	Intravenously
28.	LA	Local anesthesia
29.	MH	Marital history
30.	MSW	Medical social worker
28
31.	NAD	Nothing abnormal detected
32.	NBM	Nothing by mouth
33.	N/C	No complaints
34.	NEC	Not elsewhere classified
35.	NED	No evidence of disease
36.	NOS	Not otherwise specified
37.	NYD	Not yet diagnosed
38.	O/A	On admission
39.	OD	Once a day
40.	OE	On examination
41.	O and E	Observation and examination
42.	OP	Out-patient
43.	OPC	Out-patient clinic
44.	OR	Operating room
45.	OT	Operation theater
46.	PH	Past history
47.	PI	Present illness
48.	PM	Postmortem
49.	PO	Postoperative
50.	PP	Postpartum
51.	q.d	Quaque die (everyday)
52.	q.d.h	Quaque duo hora (every two hours)
53.	q.h	Quaque horo (every hour)
54.	q.i.d.	Quarter in die (four times daily)
55.	q.n	Quaque nocte (every night)
56.	q.n.s	Quantum non-statis (insufficient quantity)
57.	q.q.h	Quaque quarta hora (every four hours)
58.	q.s	Quantum statis (sufficient quantity)
59.	q.t.h	Quoque tres hora (every three hours)
60.	q.v	Quantum vis (as much as desired)
61.	RAD	Radiation absorbed dose
62.	RFB	Retained foreign body
63.	RR	Recovery room
64.	RT	Radiation therapy
65.	Rx	Recipe (take)
66.	Sx	Symptoms
67.	Tx	Therapy
68.	US	Ultrasound
69.	VS	Vital signs
70.	WNL	Within normal limits
71.	XR	X-ray

Chapter Notes

Human Body1