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Nursing Research & Statistics
GS Purushothama
CHAPTER 1:
Research and Research Process
INTRODUCTION
Defining Research
Technical Meaning of Research
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
TYPES OF RESEARCH
RESEARCH APPROACHES
Quantitative Approach
Qualitative Approach
SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
RESEARCH METHODS VERSUS METHODOLOGY
Research and Scientific Method
Meaning of Scientific Method
CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH
APPROACHES TO SCIENCE
The Ladder of Abstraction
The Middle of the Ladder: Frameworks, Theories and Concepts
Concepts
THEORETICAL EXPLANATION OF NURSING RESEARCH
Theories
Types of Theories
FRAMEWORK FOR RESEARCH
Importance of Framework for Research
NURSING RESEARCH IN PERSPECTIVE
What is Nursing Research?
Importance of Nursing Research
Consumer-Producer Continuum in Nursing Research
HISTORY OF NURSING RESEARCH
The Early Years: From Nightingale to the 1960s
Nursing Research in the 1970s
Nursing Research in the 1980s
Nursing Research in the 1990s
Future Directions for Nursing Research
NURSING RESEARCH IN INDIA
SOURCES OF EVIDENCE FOR NURSING RESEARCH
1. Tradition and Authority
2. Clinical Experience, Trial and Error, and Intuition
3. Logical Reasoning
4. Assembled Information
5. Disciplined Research
PURPOSE OF NURSING RESEARCH
1. Research to Achieve Varying Levels of Explanation
2. Identification and Description
3. Qualitative Example of Identification
4. Exploration
5. Explanation
6. Prediction and Control
7. Treatment, Therapy or Intervention
8. Diagnosis and Assessment
9. Prognosis
10. Prevention of Harm
11. Etiology or Causation
CHAPTER 2:
Identification of Problem Area
INTRODUCTION
RESEARCH EXAMPLE: PROBLEM AND PURPOSE
Problem Significance
Problem Background
Problem Statement
Research Purpose
CRITIQUE
Research Problem
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Problems and Purpose in Types of Quantitative Studies
Problems and Purpose in Types of Qualitative Studies
Problems and Purpose of Outcomes Research
DETERMINING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF A STUDY: PROBLEM AND PURPOSE
(i) Influences Nursing Practice
(ii) Builds on Previous Research
(iii) Promotes Theory Testing or Development
(iv) Addresses Nursing Research Priorities
EXAMINING THE FEASIBILITY OF A PROBLEM AND PURPOSE
1. Researcher Expertise
2. Money Commitment
3. Availability of Subjects, Facilities, and Equipment
4. Ethical Considerations
EXAMINING RESEARCH OBJECTIVES, QUESTIONS, AND HYPOTHESES IN RESEARCH REPORTS
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES IMPLEMENTED IN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE STUDIES
RESEARCH EXAMPLE
From a Quantitative Study
Research Problem
Research Purpose
Research Objectives
From a Qualitative Study
Research Problem
Research Purpose
Research Objectives
RESEARCH QUESTIONS IMPLEMENTED IN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE STUDIES
HYPOTHESES
CHARACTERISTICS OF USABLE HYPOTHESES
TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
1. Associative versus Causal Hypotheses
2. Simple versus Complex Hypotheses
3. Nondirectional versus Directional Hypotheses
4. Null versus Research Hypotheses
Testable Hypothesis
ETHICAL AND LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH:A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
ARTICLES OF THE NUREMBERG CODE
BASIC ETHICAL PRINCIPLES RELEVANT TO THE CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
Respect for Persons
Beneficence
Justice
Subjects
EVOLUTION OF ETHICS IN NURSING RESEARCH
PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Procedures for Protecting Basic Human Rights
Informed Consent
PROTECTING BASIC HUMAN RIGHTS OF VULNERABLE GROUPS
SCIENTIFIC FRAUD AND MISCONDUCT
Fraud
Misconduct
Unauthorized Research
PRODUCT TESTING
LEGAL AND ETHICAL ASPECTS OF ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION
Basic Provisions of Acts Pertaining to Animal Experimentation
CHAPTER 3:
Review of Literature
INTRODUCTION
PURPOSES AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH-LITERATURE REVIEWS
TYPES OF INFORMATION FOR A RESEARCH
MAJOR STEPS AND STRATEGIES IN A LITERATURE REVIEW
LOCATING RELEVANT LITERATURE
Formulating a Search Strategy
Searching Bibliographic Databases
Key Electronic Databases for Nurse Researchers
The CINAHL Database
The MEDLINE Database
The ISI Web of Knowledge
Screening and Gathering References
Documentation in Literature Retrieval
ABSTRACTING AND RECORDING INFORMATION
Coding the Studies
CODES FOR NURSE CHARACTERISTICS (INDEPENDENT VARIABLES)
CODES FOR RESPONSES TO CHILDREN'S PAIN (DEPENDENT VARIABLES)
Literature Review Protocols
Literature Review Matrices
CRITIQUING STUDIES AND EVALUATING THE EVIDENCE
Evaluating a Body of Research
ANALYZING AND SYNTHESIZING INFORMATION
PREPARING A WRITTEN LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Organizing the Review
2. Writing a Literature Review
3. Content of the Written Literature Review
4. Style of a Research Review
OVERALL PURPOSE OF THE KNOWLEDGE
EXAMPLES OF USES OF LITERATURE REVIEW FOR THE RESEARCH PROCESS: QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE
Quantitative Process
Qualitative Process
EXAMPLES OF USES OF THE LITERATURE FOR CONSUMER PURPOSES: EDUCATIONAL AND PRACTICE SETTINGS
Educational Setting
Undergraduate Students
Graduate Students (Master's and Doctoral)
Doctorally Prepared Faculty
Clinical/Professional Setting
Nurses in the Clinical Setting
Professional Nursing
EXAMPLES OF NURSING JOURNALS FOR LITERATURE REVIEWS
TYPES OF INFORMATION SOURCES FOR A REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Conceptual Literature
Data-based Literature
Selected Sources of Review of Literature
CHAPTER 4:
Sampling and Data Collection
INTRODUCTION
NEED FOR SAMPLING
CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE
Characteristics of a Good Sample Design
CRITERIA OF INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION
SAMPLING CONCEPTS
Population
Target Population
Samples and Sampling
Representativeness
TYPES OF SAMPLES
I Nonprobability Sampling
1. Convenience Sampling
Advantages of Convenience Sampling
Disadvantage of Convenience Sampling
2. Quota Sampling
3. Purposive Sampling
When Purposive Sampling is Appropriate
II Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
Advantages of Simple Random Sampling
Disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling
2. Stratified Random Sampling
Advantages of Stratified Random Sampling
Disadvantages of Stratified Random Sampling
3. Multistage Sampling (Cluster Sampling)
Advantages of Multistage or Cluster Sampling
Disadvantages
4. Systematic Sampling
Advantages and Disadvantages of Systematic Sampling
Special Sampling Strategies
SAMPLE SIZE
SAMPLING PROCEDURES
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
I Observation
Limitations of Observation
Types of Observation: Structured and Unstructured Observations
Limitations of Participant Observation
Controlled and Uncontrolled Observations
II Interview Method
Types of Interviews
Personal Interviews
Telephone Interviews
III Questionnaires
The merits of questionnaire method:
The demerits of questionnaire method:
Essentials of a Good Questionnaire
IV Interview Schedule
Difference between Questionnaires and Schedule
V Use of Mechanical Devices
VI Projective Techniques
VII Depth Interviews
VIII Content-Analysis
COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
Characteristics of Usable Secondary Data
SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE METHOD FOR DATA COLLECTION
CASE STUDY METHOD
Definition
Advantages
Limitations
DESIGNING AND IMPLEMENTING A DATA COLLECTION PLAN
Data Collection Plan
Existing Data versus Original Data
Major Types of Data Collection Methods
Self-Reports
Observation
Biophysiologic Measures
Dimensions of Data Collection Approaches
1. Structure
2. Quantifiability
3. Researcher Obtrusiveness
4. Objectivity
CONVERTING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATA
Using Quantitative Data Qualitatively
Using Qualitative Data Quantitatively
DEVELOPING A DATA COLLECTION PLAN IN QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
Identifying Data Needs
Selecting Types of Measures
Selecting and Developing Instruments
Pretesting the Data Collection Package
Developing Data Collection Forms and Procedures
Data Collection Protocols in Quantitative Studies
IMPLEMENTING A DATA COLLECTION PLAN IN A QUANTITATIVE STUDY
Selecting Research Personnel
Training Data Collectors
Example of a Table of Contents for an Interviewer Training Manual
DATA COLLECTION ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE STUDIES
Types of Data for Qualitative Studies
Field Issues in Qualitative Studies
1. Gaining Trust
2. The Pace of Data Collection
3. Emotional Involvement with Participants
4. Reflexivity
Recording and Storing Qualitative Data
Research Example of Data Collection in a Quantitative Study
Findings
Research Example of Data Collection in a Qualitative Study
Findings
RESEARCH DESIGN
Meaning of Research Design
Features of a Good Design
Important Concepts Relating to Research Design
1. Dependent and Independent Variables
2. Extraneous Variable
3. Control
4. Confounded Relationship
5. Research Hypothesis
6. Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis: Testing Research
7. Experimental and Control Groups
8. Treatments
9. Experiment
10. Experimental Unit(s)
Major Concepts used in Clinical Research Design
1. Causality
2. Multicausality
3. Probability
4. Bias
5. Control
6. Manipulation
DESIGNS FOR NURSING STUDIES
I Descriptive Design
Typical Descriptive Design
Critique
II Comparative Descriptive Design
Research Example for Comparative Descriptive Design
III Case Study Design
Research Example Case Study Design
Critique
IV Correlational Design
Descriptive Correlational Design
Implications for Practice
Predictive Correlational Design
Research Example Predictive Correlational Design
Implications for Practice
V Model Testing Design
Map of Model
VI Quasi-experimental Design
VII Experimental Designs
Pretest-Posttest Design
Randomized Clinical Trial
Mapping the Design
Role of Replication Studies in Evidence-based Practice
PILOT STUDY
Objective of Pilot Study
The Major Advantages of Pilot Study
CHAPTER 5:
Analysis of Data
INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
Qualitative Analysis Challenges
Analysis Styles
QUALITATIVE DATA MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION
I Transcribing Qualitative Data
II Developing a Category Scheme
III Coding Qualitative Data
IV Manual Methods of Organizing Qualitative Data
Computer Programs for Managing Qualitative Data
ANALYTIC PROCEDURES
A General Analytic Overview
Qualitative Content Analysis
I Analysis of Ethnographic Data
II Phenomenological Analysis
III Grounded Theory Analysis
Glaser and Strauss's Grounded Theory Method
Strauss and Corbin's Approach
Analysis of Focus Group Data
Analysis of Triangulated Qualitative-Quantitative Data
STATISTICAL REPRESENTATION
LOGICAL ORDERING OF DATA
CHAPTER 6:
Introduction to Statistics
INTRODUCTION
Uses of Statistics
Meaning and Definition of Statistics
Stages of Statistics
1. Collection
2. Organization
3. Presentation
4. Analysis of Data
5. Interpretation of Data
Scope of Statistics
Limitations
SCALES OF MEASUREMENTS
Measurement of Data Collection
Principles of Measurement or Concepts of Measurement
1. Direct Measurement
2. Indirect Measurement
Measurement Error
Levels of Measurement
1. Nominal Scale Measurement
2. Ordinal Scale Measurement
3. Interval Scale Measurement
4. Ratio Scale Measurement
Measurement Strategies in Nursing
1. Physiological Measurements
2. Rating Scales
3. The Likert Scale
4. Semantic Differential Scales
5. Visual Analog Scales
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Raw Data
Example:
Discrete Series Class
Continuous or Class-interval Series
Use of Tally Marks
Cumulative Frequency Series
GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF DATA
Line Diagram or Line Graph
Graph of One Variable
Graph of Two or More Variables
Range Chart
Band Graph/Layer Chart
Histogram
Frequency Polygon
Frequency Curve
CALCULATION OF MEAN FOR GROUPED DATA
Steps
Steps
Averaging Means
Example 1:
Steps
MEDIAN
Computation of Median for Grouped Data
Calculation of Median for Grouped Data
MODE
Calculation of Mode for Grouped Data
Advantages and disadvantages of mean, median and mode: Mean Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Median Advantages
Mode Advantages
Disadvantages
TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE (TESTING HYPOTHESIS)
Standard Error of Mean ()
Application of SE
Standard Error of Difference between Means of Large Samples (Z Test)
Calculation of Standard Error of Difference Between Two Means of Uncorrelated Data (Z Test)
Steps
Calculation of standard error of difference between means (âtâ-test): Small sample, uncorrelated data
Criteria for applying âtâ test:
1st Method:
Standard Error of Difference Between Two Means
Example:
Steps
Testing Significance of Difference between Proportions (Larger Samples)
Standard Error of Proportion (SEP)
Calculation of Standard Error of Proportion
Standard Error of Difference between Two Proportions
Formula 1:
Formula 2:
STANDARD DEVIATION
Calculation of SD
Raw Data
Steps for (a)
Steps for (b)
Solution:
PROBABILITY
Meaning of Probability
Law of Probability or Theorems of Probability
The Addition Theorem
Addition law when events are not mutually exclusive:
Multiplication Law of Probability
CORRELATION OR COVARIATION
Meaning of Correlation
Type of Correlation
Positive Correlation
Negative Correlation
Simple and Multiple Correlation
Partial and Total Correlation
Linear and Nonlinear (or) Curvilinear Correlation
Merits of Pearson's Coefficient of Correlation
Demerits
CHAPTER 7:
Communication and Utilization of Research
INTRODUCTION
VERBAL METHOD
WRITTEN REPORTS
Significance of Report Writing
Different Steps in Writing Report
1. Logical Analysis of the Subject Matter
2. Preparation of the Final Outline
3. Preparation of the Rough Draft
4. Rewriting and Polishing of the Rough Draft
5. Preparation of the Final Bibliography
6. Writing the Final Draft
Guidelines for Writing Research
METHOD OF SCIENTIFIC REPORT WRITING
1. Introduction
2. Method
3. Findings
4. Discussion
5. References
6. Appendixes
WRITING FOR RESEARCH CONFERENCE
WRITING FOR PUBLICATION
Acknowledgments
Research Presentations
WRITING A RESEARCH ABSTRACT
General Guidelines
Specific NYSNA Guidelines
CRITIQUE GUIDELINES
Intellectual Critique
Steps in Conducting a Research Critique
Understanding the Quantitative Research Critique Process
Phase 1: Comprehension
Phases 2 and 3: Comparison and Analysis
Phase 4: Evaluation
Introduction to the Critique Process for Qualitative Research
Standard 1: Descriptive Vividness
Standard 2: Methodological Congruence
Standard 3: Analytical and Interpretative Preciseness
Standard 4: Philosophical or Theoretical Connectedness
Standard 5: Heuristic Relevance
INTUITIVE RECOGNITION
Relationship to the Existing Body of Knowledge
Applicability to Nursing Practice, Research, or Education
RESEARCH PROPOSAL FOR ICMR
SECTION A
SECTION B
Details of the Research Project
SECTION C
Biodata of the Investigator(s)
RESEARCH PROPOSAL FOR FINANCIAL SUPPORT FROM WHO
Sheets for Research Project Description
Budget Proposals
Bibliography
INDEX
TOC
Index
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