JaypeeDigital | eBook Reader

Textbook of Biochemistry for Paramedical Students P Ramamoorthy

SECTION I: INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMISTRY
1:The Cell (Biochemical and Biophysical Aspects)
- BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS
- THE EUKARYOTIC CELL
- CYTOPLASM
  - Cytosol
  - Subcellular Organelles
  - Subcellular Fractions
    - Cytoskeleton
    - Ribosomes
- NUCLEUS
  - Structure
  - Functions
- CELL MEMBRANE (PLASMA MEMBRANE)
  - Structure/Composition (Fig. 1.2)
  - Functions
- BIOPHYSICAL ASPECTS
- WATER
  - pH
- ACID, BASE, BUFFER
  - Acid
    - Definition
  - Base
    - Definition
  - Salt
    - Definition
  - Buffer
  - Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
    - Definition
    - Importance
- DIFFUSION
  - Definition
  - Process
  - Biomedical Importance
- OSMOSIS
  - Definition
  - Process
  - Osmotic Pressure
    - Definition
    - Characteristics
  - Biomedical Importance
- DIALYSIS
  - Definition
  - Biomedical Importance
- GIBBS DONNAN MEMBRANE EQUILIBRIUM
  - Definition
  - Biomedical Importance
- SURFACE TENSION
  - Definition
  - Measurement
  - Biomedical Importance
- VISCOSITY
  - Definition
  - Determination
    - Unit
  - Biomedical Importance
- COLLOIDS
  - Classification
  - Properties
  - Biomedical Importance
- ADSORPTION
  - Definition
  - Biomedical Importance
- ABSORPTION
  - Definition
  - Biomedical Importance
- RADIOACTIVITY
  - Definition
  - Types of Radiation
  - Isotopes
    - Definition
    - Types
- UNIT OF MEASUREMENT: CURIE (CI)
  - Applications
  - Hazards
- MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
  - Transport Mechanisms for Small Molecules
  - Transport System
  - Transport of Macromolecules
- ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
  - Methods to Separate Subcellular Organelles
SECTION II: CHEMISTRY OF BIOMOLECULES
2:Chemistry of Carbohydrates
- DEFINITION
- ALTERNATIVE NAME
- OCCURRENCE
- COMPOSITION
- BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE/FUNCTIONS
- CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
- CLASSIFICATION (FIG. 2.1)
- I. MONOSACCHARIDES (TABLE 2.1)
  - Subclasses
- STRUCTURAL ASPECTS
  - Structure of Glucose
  - Straight (Open/Linear) Chain Forms
  - Ring (Cyclic) Forms
- ISOMERISM IN SUGARS
  - Optical Isomers
    - Dextrorotatory (+) or D
    - Levorotatory (–) or L
  - D or L Isomers
  - Anomers
    - Definition
    - Importance
  - Epimers
    - Definition
    - Importance
  - Structures of Fructose
    - Straight Chain
    - Ring Forms
- PROPERTIES
  - I. Physical
    - Mutarotation
  - II. Chemical
- REACTIONS DUE TO ALDEHYDE (CHO) OR KETO (CO) GROUP
  - Action of Alkalis
  - Reducing Action
  - Tests to Identify Reducing Sugars
  - Reduction
  - Formation of Osazones
  - Fermentation
  - Reactions due to Hydroxyl Groups
    - Formation of Esters
- REACTIONS DUE TO BOTH CHO/CO AND OH GROUPS
- DERIVATIVES
  - Glycosides
  - Aminosugars
- II. OLIGOSACCHARIDES
  - Definition
  - Subclasses
  - Importance
- DISACCHARIDES
  - Lactose
  - Maltose
  - Sucrose
  - Inversion and Invert Sugar
- III. POLYSACCHARIDES
  - Definition
  - Functions
  - Subclasses
- HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES
  - Definition
  - Starch
  - Dextrins
  - Glycogen
  - Dextrans
  - Cellulose
  - Inulin
- HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES
- MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES
  - General Functions
  - Examples (Table 2.2)
- ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
3:Chemistry of Lipids
- DEFINITION
- ALTERNATIVE NAME
- OCCURRENCE
- BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE/FUNCTIONS
- CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
- CLASSIFICATION (FIG. 3.1)
- I. SIMPLE LIPIDS
  - Definition
  - Composition
  - Subclasses
  - I. Fats
- TESTS FOR PURITY OF FATS (CHARACTERIZATION OF FATS)
  - Physical Methods
  - Chemical Methods
  - 2. Waxes
- II. COMPOUND LIPIDS
  - Definition
  - Composition
  - Subclasses
- PHOSPHOLIPIDS
  - Definition
  - Composition
  - Biomedical Importance/Functions
  - Clinical Significance
  - Sources
  - Subclasses
- PHOSPHOGLYCERIDES
  - Definition
  - Composition
  - Examples
  - Lecithin
  - Action of Lecithinases on Lecithins
    - Biomedical Importance
  - Cephalin
  - Plasmalogens
  - Cardiolipin
- PHOSPHOINOSITIDES
  - Composition
  - Structure
  - Occurrence
  - Importance
- PHOSPHOSPHINGOSIDES
  - Composition
  - Structure
  - Sources
  - Clinical Importance
- GLYCOLIPIDS
  - Definition
  - Composition
  - Classification
  - Cerebrosides
  - Gangliosides
- LIPOPROTEINS
  - Definition
  - Classification (Types)
  - Composition (Table 3.1)
  - Lipids Present in Lipoproteins
  - Proteins Present in Lipoproteins
  - Biomedical Importance/Functions
- SULFOLIPIDS
  - Composition
  - Structure
  - Occurrence
  - Biomedical Importance
- III. DERIVED LIPIDS
  - Definition
  - Examples
- FATTY ACIDS
  - Definition
  - Biomedical Importance/Functions
  - Numbering of Carbon Atoms
  - Indicating Position of Double Bonds
  - Classification/Types
  - Saturated Fatty Acids
  - Unsaturated Fatty Acids
    - Isomerism in Unsaturated Fatty Acids
  - Branched Chain Fatty Acids
  - Hydroxy Fatty Acids
  - Cyclic Fatty Acids
  - Properties
    - Physical
    - Chemical
- ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS (EFA)
  - Definition
  - Examples
  - Sources
  - Biomedical Importance/Functions
  - Deficiency Symptoms
- EICOSANOIDS
  - Definition
  - Classification/Types (Fig. 3.2)
  - Biomedical Importance/Functions
- ALCOHOLS
  - Glycerol
  - Sterols
    - Types
  - Animal Sterols
  - Sources
  - Structure (Fig. 3.3)
  - Properties
    - Physical
    - Chemical
  - Biomedical Importance/Functions
  - Clinical Significance
  - Coprosterol
  - 7-dehydrocholesterol (Provitamin D3)
  - Plant Sterols
- IV. MISCELLANEOUS LIPIDS
  - Definition
  - Examples
- RELATED TERMS IN LIPID CHEMISTRY
4:Chemistry of Proteins
- DEFINITION
- OCCURRENCE
- COMPOSITION
- BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE/FUNCTIONS
- CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
- CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS
  - Classification–A (Fig. 4.1)
  - Neutral Amino Acids
  - Acidic Amino Acids
  - Basic Amino Acids
  - Classification–B
  - Classification–C
  - Classification–D
    - Essential Amino Acids (10)
    - Nonessential Amino Acids (10)
- PROPERTIES
  - Physical
  - Ampholytes
    - Definition
    - Ionic State
  - Isoelectric pH (or) Isoelectric Point (pI)
    - Definition
    - Application
  - Chemical
  - Reactions to IdentifyC-Terminal Amino Acid
- DEFINITION
- MEANING
- COMPOSITION
- OCCURRENCE
- BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE/FUNCTIONS
- CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
- CLASSIFICATION
  - Classification–A (Fig. 4.2)
  - Classification–B
  - Classification–C
  - Classification–D: Based on Nutritional Value
  - Simple Proteins
  - Conjugated Proteins
  - Derived Proteins
  - Structural Organization of Proteins
  - Primary Structure
  - Secondary Structure (Fig. 4.3)
  - Tertiary Structure (Fig. 4.4)
  - Quaternary Structure (Fig. 4.5)
    - Clinical Importance
- PROPERTIES
  - Physical
  - Chemical
- ESTIMATION OF PROTEINS (IN BLOOD)
- CRITERIA FOR PURITY OF PROTEINS
- PLASMA PROTEINS
  - Biomedical Importance/Functions
  - Clinical Significance
  - Method of Separation
- INDIVIDUAL PLASMA PROTEINS
  - Albumin
  - Globulins
  - Fibrinogen
  - Variations in Plasma Proteins
- IMMUNOGLOBULINS
  - Definition
  - General Function
  - Classification
  - Examples
  - Structure (Fig. 4.6)
  - Clinical Importance
- PEPTIDES
  - Definition
  - Composition
  - Formation
  - Structure
  - Properties
  - Biomedical Importance/Functions
- GLYCOPROTEINS
  - Examples
  - Functions
- PROTEOGLYCANS
  - Functions
- APOLIPOPROTEINS (APOPROTEINS)
  - Functions
- GLUTATHIONE
  - Functions
5:Chemistry of Nucleic Acids
- DEFINITION
- DISCOVERY
- TYPES
- OCCURRENCE
- BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE/FUNCTIONS
- CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
- COMPOSITION
- NITROGENOUS BASES
- SUGARS
- PHOSPHORIC ACID
- NUCLEOSIDES
  - Examples
- NUCLEOTIDES
- NUCLEIC ACIDS
- DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
  - Location
  - Structure
  - DNA Double Helix
  - Examples
  - Types
  - Formation
  - Properties
  - Biomedical Importance/Functions
- RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)
  - Location
  - Structure
  - Formation
  - Biomedical Importance/Functions
  - Types of RNA
  - Messenger RNA (mRNA)
  - Transfer RNA (tRNA)
  - Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT NUCLEOTIDES
- NATURALLY OCCURRING NUCLEOTIDES
- PURINE NUCLEOTIDES
  - Examples
  - Adenine Nucleotides
  - Guanine Nucleotides
    - Composition
- PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES
  - Uridine Nucleotides
    - Composition
  - Cytidine Nucleotides
    - Composition
  - Thymine Nucleotide
- MISCELLANEOUS NUCLEOTIDES
- SYNTHETIC NUCLEOTIDES
  - Definition
  - Mechanism of Action
  - Examples
    - Synthetic Nucleosides/Nucleotides/Nucleobases
- NUCLEOPROTEINS
  - Location
  - Composition
  - Functions
6:Chemistry of Hemoglobin
- DEFINITION
- BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE/FUNCTIONS
- CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
- COMPOSITION
- HEME
  - Composition
- PORPHYRIN
- IRON
- GLOBIN
- NORMAL HUMAN HEMOGLOBINS
- SPECTROSCOPIC ANALYSIS OF HEMOGLOBIN AND ITS DERIVATIVES
- HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES
- OTHER HEME PROTEINS
- MYOGLOBIN
- CYTOCHROMES
- CATALASES
- PEROXIDASES
7:Enzymes
- DEFINITION
- DISCOVERY
- MEANING
- BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE/FUNCTIONS
- CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
- COMMERCIAL USES
- COMPOSITION (FIG. 7.1)
- PROPERTIES
- CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
- NUMBERING ENZYME
- ENZYME SPECIFICITY
- COFACTORS (FIG. 7.2)
  - Definition
  - Type
- COENZYMES
- METAL IONS (FIG. 7.3)
- MECHANISM OF ENZYME ACTION
- FACTORS AFFECTING ACTIVITY OF ENZYMES OR VELOCITY OF ENZYMATIC REACTION (ENZYME KINETICS)
- REGULATION OF ENZYME ACTIVITY
  - Expression of Enzyme Activity
  - Definition [Enzyme Unit (IU/L)]
- APPLICATION OF ENZYMES
  - Diagnostic Significance of Enzymes (Clinically Important Enzymes)
  - Therapeutic Uses
- ISOENZYMES
8:Vitamins
- DEFINITION
- ALTERNATIVE NAME
- DISCOVERY
- BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE/FUNCTIONS
- CLASSIFICATION (FIG. 8.1)
- FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS (LIPID-SOLUBLE VITAMINS)
- SYNONYMS
- CHEMISTRY
  - Structure
  - Provitamins A
  - Properties
- SOURCES
- METABOLISM
  - Biosynthesis
  - Absorption
  - Storage
  - Transport
  - Excretion
- FUNCTIONS
  - Biochemical
  - Others
- DAILY REQUIREMENTS
- DEFICIENCY
  - Changes in Eyes
  - Changes in Other Parts of the Body
- TOXICITY (HYPERVITAMINOSIS A)
- SYNONYMS
- CHEMISTRY
  - Structure (Fig. 8.3)
  - Provitamins D
  - Conversion of Provitamins D to Vitamins D
    - Formation of Vitamin D2
    - Formation of Vitamin D3
  - Properties
- SOURCES
  - Provitamin D2
  - Provitamin D3
  - Vitamin D2
  - Vitamin D3
- METABOLISM
  - Biosynthesis
  - Absorption
  - Storage
  - Excretion
- BIOSYNTHESIS OF CALCITRIOL (FIG. 8.4)
  - Conversion of Vitamin D3 to Calcitriol
  - Site
  - Steps
- FUNCTIONS
  - Biochemical
  - Others
- DAILY REQUIREMENTS
- DEFICIENCY
  - Causes
  - Symptoms
- TOXICITY (HYPERVITAMINOSIS D)
- SYNONYMS
- CHEMISTRY
  - Structure
  - Properties
- SOURCES
- METABOLISM
- FUNCTIONS
  - Biochemical
    - Antioxidant
    - Synthesis of BiologicallyImportant Compounds
  - Others
- DAILY REQUIREMENTS
- DEFICIENCY
  - Symptoms
  - In Rats
- SYNONYMS
- CHEMISTRY
  - Structures
  - Properties
- SOURCES
- METABOLISM
  - Biosynthesis, Absorption, Storage and Excretion
- FUNCTIONS
  - Biochemical
  - Others
- DAILY REQUIREMENTS
- DEFICIENCY
  - Causes
  - Symptoms
    - Hemorrhagic Disease
- ANTIVITAMINS/ANTAGONISTS
- WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
- THIAMINE (VITAMIN B1)
  - Synonyms
  - Chemistry
    - Structure
    - Properties
  - Sources
  - Metabolism
    - Biosynthesis, Absorption, Storage and Excretion
  - Coenzyme
  - Functions
  - Daily Requirements
  - Deficiency
  - Antivitamins/Antagonists
- RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2)
  - Synonyms
  - Chemistry
    - Structure
    - Properties
  - Sources
  - Metabolism
  - Coenzymes
    - Flavin Mononucleotide (FMN)
    - Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)
  - Functions
    - Biochemical
    - Others
  - Daily Requirements
  - Deficiency
  - Antivitamins/Antagonists
- NIACIN
  - Synonyms
  - Chemistry
    - Structure
    - Properties
  - Sources
  - Metabolism
    - Biosynthesis, Absorption, Storage and Excretion
  - Coenzymes
    - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD+): (Oxidized Form)
    - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADP+): (Oxidized Form)
  - Functions
  - NADPH Dependent Reactions
  - Daily Requirements
  - Deficiency
  - Antivitamins/Antagonists
- PYRIDOXINE (VITAMIN B6)
  - Synonyms
  - Chemistry
    - Structure
    - Properties
  - Sources
  - Metabolism
    - Biosynthesis, Absorption, Storage and Excretion
  - Coenzyme
  - Functions
    - Biochemical
    - Others
  - Daily Requirements
  - Deficiency
    - Causes
    - Symptoms
  - Antivitamins/Antagonists
- PANTOTHENIC ACID
  - Synonyms
  - Chemistry
    - Structure
    - Properties
  - Sources
  - Metabolism
    - Biosynthesis, Absorption, Storage and Excretion
  - Coenzyme
  - Functions
    - Biochemical
    - Others
  - Daily Requirements
  - Deficiency
    - In Humans
    - In Animals
  - Antivitamins/Antagonists
- BIOTIN
  - Synonyms
  - Chemistry
    - Structure
    - Properties
  - Sources
  - Metabolism
    - Biosynthesis, Absorption, Storage and Excretion
  - Coenzyme
  - Functions
    - Biochemical
    - Others
  - Daily Requirements
  - Deficiency
    - Causes
    - Symptoms
  - Antivitamins/Antagonists
- FOLIC ACID
  - Synonyms
  - Chemistry
    - Structure
    - Properties
  - Sources
  - Metabolism
    - Biosynthesis, Absorption, Storage and Excretion
  - Coenzyme
  - Functions
  - Daily Requirements
  - Deficiency
  - Antivitamins/Antagonists
- COBALAMIN (VITAMIN B12)
  - Synonyms
  - Chemistry
    - Structure (Fig. 8.6)
    - Properties
  - Sources
  - Metabolism
  - Coenzymes
  - Functions
    - Biochemical
    - Others
  - Daily Requirements
    - Deficiency Symptoms
- VITAMIN C
  - Synonyms
  - Chemistry
  - Metabolism
  - Functions
    - Biochemical
    - Others
  - Daily Requirements
  - Deficiency
- VITAMIN-LIKE COMPOUNDS
  - Examples
- ANTIVITAMINS
SECTION III: METABOLISM
9:Introduction to Metabolism
- DEFINITION
- METHODS OF STUDYING (INVESTIGATING) METABOLISM
10:Biological Oxidation
- ALTERNATIVE NAMES
- ENZYMES INVOLVED IN BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION
- ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN (ETC)
- OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
- AGENTS WHICH INHIBIT ETC AND / OR OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
  - Importance
- BIOENERGETICS
11:Digestion, Absorption and Metabolism of Carbohydrates
- DIGESTION
  - Mouth
  - Stomach
  - Small Intestine
    - Pancreatic a-amylase (optimum pH 7.1)
  - Brush Border Enzymes
    - Isomaltase
    - Disaccharidases
  - Disorders (Clinical Importance)
  - Lactose Intolerance
- ABSORPTION
  - Inhibitors
  - Disorders
- METABOLISM OF GLUCOSE
- CATABOLISM OF GLUCOSE
- GLYCOLYSIS (FIG. 11.1)
  - Alternative Name
  - Definition
  - Site
    - Conditions
  - Pathway*
  - Energy Investment Phase
  - Types
  - Energetics
  - Glycolysis in RBCs
    - Importance
- LINK REACTION (FIG. 11.3)
  - Site
  - Conditions
  - Pathway
  - Enzymes
  - Cofactors
  - Energetics
  - Inhibitors
  - Regulation
  - Disorders
  - Importance
- CITRIC ACID CYCLE (FIG. 11.4)
  - Definition
  - Alternative Names
  - Site
  - Condition
  - Pathway
  - Inhibitors
  - Regulation
  - Biomedical Importance
  - Energetics
  - Disorders (Clinical Importance)
- ALTERNATIVE PATHWAYS OFGLUCOSE CATABOLISM
- HEXOSE MONOPHOSPHATE SHUNT (HMP SHUNT)
  - Alternative Names
  - Site
  - Pathway
    - Oxidative Phase
    - Nonoxidative Phase
  - Energetics
  - Disorders (Clinical Importance)
  - Importance
- URONIC ACID PATHWAY (FIG. 11.6)
  - Alternative Name
  - Site
  - Pathway
  - Energetics
  - Disorders (Clinical Importance)
  - Deficiency
  - L-xylulose →Xylitol
  - Importance
- ANABOLISM OF GLUCOSE
- GLYCOGENOLYSIS
- GLUCONEOGENESIS
  - Definition
  - Site
  - Pathway
    - In Cytosol
    - In Mitochondria
  - In Cytosol
  - Energetics
  - Regulation
  - Inhibitors
  - Importance
  - Disorders (Clinical Importance)
- OTHER SUGARS (REFER TO PAGE 145) GLYCOGEN METABOLISM
- GLYCOGENESIS
  - Definition
  - Site
  - Pathway
- GLYCOGENOLYSIS
  - Definition
  - Site
  - Pathway
  - Regulation
  - Disorders of Glycogen Metabolism Glycogen Storage Diseases
    - Definition
    - Types
  - Biomedical Importance
- METABOLISM OF OTHER SUGARS
- FRUCTOSE METABOLISM
  - Site
  - Major Pathway
  - Minor Pathway
    - Importance
  - Disorders (Inborn Errors of Metabolism)
    - Essential Fructosuria
    - Hereditary Fructose Intolerance
- GALACTOSE METABOLISM
  - Site
  - Pathway
  - Importance
  - Disorders (Clinical Importance) (Inborn Errors of Metabolism)
- BLOOD SUGAR REGULATION
  - Definition
  - Regulatory Mechanisms
  - Role of Liver
    - During Hyperglycemia
    - During Hypoglycemia
  - Role of Extrahepatic Tissues
    - Muscle
    - Kidney
  - Role of Hormones
    - Hormone which Decreases Blood Sugar (Hypoglycemic Hormone)
    - Hormones which Increase Blood Sugar (Hyperglycemic Hormones)
  - Disorders of Blood Sugar Regulation (Clinical Importance)
- HYPERGLYCEMIA
  - Diabetes Mellitus
  - Types
    - Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM)
    - Noninsulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM)
  - Clinical Symptoms
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- HYPOGLYCEMIA
  - Diagnosis
- GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST (GTT)
  - Definition
  - Importance
  - Test
    - Prerequisites
    - Procedure
  - Interpretation
    - Normal Curve
    - Diabetic Curve
12:Digestion, Absorption and Metabolism of Lipids
- DIGESTION (FIG. 12.1)
- ABSORPTION (FIG. 12.1)
  - Disorders (Clinical Importance)
    - Steatorrhea
    - Chyluria and Chylothorax
- TRANSPORT AND STORAGE
- METABOLISM
- METABOLISM OF FATTY ACIDS
- CATABOLISM OF FATTY ACIDS
- FORMATION AND UTILIZATION OF KETONE BODIES
- UTILIZATION OF KETONE BODIES (KETOLYSIS)
- BIOSYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACIDS
- BIOSYNTHESIS OF SHORT CHAIN SATURATED FATTY ACIDS (LIPOGENESIS)
- BIOSYNTHESIS OF LONG CHAIN SATURATED FATTY ACIDS (ELONGATION OF SHORT CHAIN SATURATED FATTY ACIDS)
- BIOSYNTHESIS OF UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
- METABOLISM OF TRIGLYCERIDES
- FATTY LIVER AND LIPOTROPIC FACTOR
- METABOLISM OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS
- METABOLISM OF GLYCOLIPIDS
  - Cerebrosides
    - Synthesis
    - Catabolism
- GANGLIOSIDES
- CHOLESTEROL METABOLISM
- LIPOPROTEINS
  - Metabolism of Lipoproteins
  - Disorders of Plasma Lipoproteins
13:Digestion, Absorption and Metabolism of Proteins
- DIGESTION
  - Gastric Phase
  - Pancreatic Phase
    - Action of Endopeptidases
    - Action of Exopeptidases
  - Intestinal Phase
- ABSORPTION
  - Changes in the Large Intestine
  - Disorders (Clinical Importance)
  - Storage
  - Amino Acid Pool
- METABOLISM OF AMINO ACIDS (GENERAL PATHWAYS)
- ANABOLISM
- CATABOLISM
  - Removal of Amino Groups from Amino Acids
  - Transamination
  - Disposal of Amino Group
    - Synthetic (Anabolic) Pathway
    - Catabolic Pathway
  - Disposal of Carbon Skeleton
- UREA CYCLE (UREA BIOSYNTHESIS)
  - Definition
  - Alternative Name
  - Site
  - Pathway (Fig. 13.2)
    - In Mitochondria
    - In Cytosol
  - Metabolic Disorders of Urea Cycle
    - Disorders
  - Clinical Importance
    - Urea
- GLYCINE
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism
    - Major Pathway
    - Other Pathways
  - Utilization
  - Disorders
- ALANINE (α-ALANINE)
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism
  - Utilization
  - Disorder
- SERINE
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism
  - Utilization
  - Disorder
- GLUTAMIC ACID
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism
  - Utilization
  - Disorder
- ASPARTIC ACID
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism
  - Utilization
  - Disorder
- GLUTAMINE
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism
  - Utilization
  - Disorder
- ASPARAGINE
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism
  - Utilization
  - Disorder
- PROLINE
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism
  - Utilization
  - Disorders
- CYSTEINE
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism
    - Direct Oxidative Pathway (Cysteine Sulfinate Pathway) (Fig. 13.3)
    - Transamination Pathway (3-mercaptopyruvate pathway) (Fig. 13.4)
  - Utilization
  - Disorders
    - Cystinuria
    - Cystinosis
- TYROSINE
  - Synthesis (Fig. 13.5)
  - Catabolism
  - Utilization (Fig. 13.7)
  - Melanin
- DOPAMINE, EPINEPHRINE (ADRENALINE) AND NOREPINEPHRINE (NORADRENALINE)
- THYROID HORMONES (T3, T4)
- DISORDERS
  - Phenylketonuria
  - Alkaptonuria
    - Incidence
    - Defect
  - Albinism
  - Tyrosinemia
- ARGININE
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism
  - Pathway
  - Utilization
- CREATININE
  - Disorders
    - Hyperornithinemia
- HISTIDINE
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism
  - Urocanate Pathway (Fig. 13.9)
  - Utilization
  - Disorders
    - Histidinemia
    - Urocanic Aciduria
- THREONINE
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism (Fig. 13.10)
    - Major Pathway
    - Minor Pathway
  - Utilization
  - Disorder
- LYSINE
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism
    - Major Pathway
    - Minor Pathway
  - Utilization
  - Disorders
- VALINE, LEUCINE, ISOLEUCINE
  - (Branched Chain Amino Acids)
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism
  - Pathway
    - Note
  - Utilization
  - Disorders
- METHIONINE
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism
  - Utilization
  - Disorders
    - Type I Homocystinuria
- TRANSMETHYLATION
  - Definition
  - Importance
- PHENYLALANINE
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism
    - Major Pathway
    - Minor Pathway
  - Utilization
  - Disorders
- TRYPTOPHAN
  - Synthesis
  - Catabolism
    - Major Pathway (Kynurenine-anthranilate pathway) (Fig. 13.14)
  - Importance
  - Other Pathways
    - Serotonin Pathway (Fig. 13.15)
    - Minor Pathways
  - Utilization
  - Disorder
    - Hartnup's Disease
14:Digestion, Absorption and Metabolism of Nucleic Acids
- DIGESTION
  - Stomach
  - Small Intestine
- ABSORPTION
- METABOLISM
- METABOLISM OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES
- BIOSYNTHESIS OF PURINE RIBONUCLEOTIDES
- SYNTHESIS OF PURINE DEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES
- CATABOLISM OF PURINE RIBONUCLEOTIDES (FIG. 14.2)
  - Site
  - Pathway
    - Note
- CATABOLISM OF PURINE DEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES
  - Normal Level of Uric Acid
  - Disorders (Clinical Importance)
- METABOLISM OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES
- SYNTHESIS OF PYRIMIDINE RIBONUCLEOTIDES (FIG. 14.3)
- SYNTHESIS OF PYRIMIDINE DEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES
- CATABOLISM OF PYRIMIDINE RIBONUCLEOTIDES (FIG. 14.4)
  - Steps
  - Disorders (Clinical Importance)
- CATABOLISM OF PYRIMIDINE DEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES
15:Metabolism of Hemoglobin
- BIOSYNTHESIS OF HEMOGLOBIN (FIG. 15.1)
- CATABOLISM OF HEMOGLOBIN (Fig. 15.2)
- JAUNDICE (TABLE 15.2)
  - Definition
16:Mineral Metabolism
- DEFINITION
- ALTERNATIVE NAME
- BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE/FUNCTIONS
- CLASSIFICATION
- ABNORMAL STATES
- MACROMINERALS
- SODIUM
- POTASSIUM
- CHLORIDE
- CALCIUM
- REGULATION OF BLOOD CALCIUM LEVEL
- PHOSPHORUS
- MAGNESIUM
- SULFUR
- MICROMINERALS
  - Definition
- TRACE ELEMENTS
  - Essential
  - General Functions
- IRON
- NONESSENTIAL TRACE ELEMENTS
17:Metabolism of Xenobiotics (Detoxication)
- SOURCES
- IMPORTANCE
- ALTERNATIVE NAMES
- DEFINITION
- SITE
- MECHANISM
  - Types of Detoxication Mechanism
    - Phase I
    - Phase II
- PHASE I
- PHASE II
  - Conjugation
  - Examples
18:Excretion
- URINE
- FECES
  - Composition
- SWEAT
SECTION IV: MISCELLANEOUS TOPICSOF BIOCHEMICAL IMPORTANCE
19:Energy Balance
- ENERGY
- CALORIFIC VALUE OF FOODS
- RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT (RQ)
- ENERGY EXPENDITURE
- ENERGY REQUIREMENT
20:Food and Nutrition
- FOOD
  - Importance
    - Components
- ENERGY-YIELDING FOODS (PRIMARY FOODS)
  - Examples
- DIETARY FIBER
- BODY-BUILDING FOODS
- PROTECTIVE FOODS
- BALANCED DIET
- MILK
  - Composition
- DIET AND PUBLIC HEALTH
- NUTRITION
- RELATED TERMS IN FOOD AND NUTRITION
21:Water and Electrolyte Balance
- WATER
- REGULATION OF WATER AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCE
  - Negative Water Balance
  - Positive Water Balance
22:Acid-Base Balance
- SOURCES OF ACIDS IN THE BLOOD
  - Inorganic Acids
  - Organic Acids
- SOURCES OF BASES IN THE BLOOD
- MECHANISMS FOR MAINTAINING ACID-BASE BALANCE
- DISTURBANCES IN ACID-BASE BALANCE (ACID-BASE IMBALANCE)
  - Diagnosis of Acid-Base Balance and Imbalance
23:Organ Function Tests
- LIVER FUNCTION TESTS (LFTS)
- RENAL FUNCTION TESTS (RFTS)
- PANCREATIC FUNCTION TESTS
- THYROID FUNCTION TESTS
- GASTRIC FUNCTION TESTS
24:Hormones
- DEFINITION
- BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE/FUNCTIONS
- CLASSIFICATION
- MECHANISM OF ACTION OF STEROID HORMONES AND THYROID HORMONES (GROUP -1 HORMONES) (FIG. 24.1)
- MECHANISM OF ACTION OF PROTEIN/PEPTIDE HORMONES (GROUP II HORMONES) (FIG. 24.2)
  - cAMP (Cyclic AMP)
  - Regulation of Hormone Secretion
- INDIVIDUAL HORMONES
- HORMONES OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
- GROWTH HORMONE
  - Mechanism of Action
  - Functions
  - Abnormalities
- TROPIC HORMONES (TROPINS)
  - Chemistry
  - Regulation
  - Effects
  - Abnormalities
- HORMONES OF POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
  - Effects
  - Abnormalities
- OXYTOCIN
  - Chemistry
  - Actions
- HORMONES OF MIDDLE LOBE OF PITUITARY
  - Functions
  - Abnormalities
- HORMONES OF HYPOTHALAMUS
- HORMONES OF THYROID GLAND
- HORMONES PRODUCED
  - Major Hormones
  - Others
- THYROXINE (T4) ANDTRIIODOTHYRONINE (T3)
  - Chemistry
  - Structure
  - Biosynthesis
  - Pathway
  - Regulation of Secretion
  - Transport in Blood
  - Storage
  - Mechanism of Action
  - Actions
  - Agents Inhibiting Thyroid Function
  - Thyroid Function Tests
  - Goitrogens
  - Abnormalities
- HORMONES OF PARATHYROID GLAND
  - Regulation of Secretion
  - Mechanism of Action
  - Storage
  - Actions
  - Abnormalities
- HORMONES OF ADRENAL GLANDS
  - Hormones of Adrenal Cortex
  - Classification
  - Structural Features of Steroid Hormones
- GLUCOCORTICOIDS
  - Important Members
- CORTISOL
  - Regulation of Secretion
  - Mechanism of Action
  - Transport
  - Metabolism
  - Actions
  - Abnormalities
- MINERALOCORTICOIDS
  - Important Members
- ALDOSTERONE
  - Biosynthesis (Fig. 24.3)
  - Regulation of Secretion
  - Transport in Blood
  - Mechanism of Action
  - Actions
  - Abnormalities
- SEXCORTICOIDS (CORTICAL SEX HORMONES)
  - Biosynthesis
  - Important Members
  - Female Sex Hormones (C-18 Steroids)
- HORMONES OF ADRENAL MEDULLA
  - Chemistry
  - Biosynthesis
  - Regulation
  - Storage
  - Release
  - Transport
  - Degradation
  - Mechanism of Action
  - Actions
  - Adrenergic Blocking Agents
  - Abnormalities
- HORMONES OF THE PANCREAS
- GLUCAGON
  - Chemistry
  - Biosynthesis
  - Mechanism of Action
  - Effects
  - Abnormalities
- INSULIN
  - Chemistry
  - Biosynthesis
  - Regulation
  - Transport
  - Mechanism of Action
  - Metabolism (Degradation)
  - Actions
  - Commercial Forms of Insulin
  - Abnormalities (Refer to Ch 11)
- SOMATOSTATIN
  - Chemistry
  - Biosynthesis
  - Functions
- PANCREATIC PEPTIDE
- HORMONES OF THE GONADS
- MALE SEX HORMONES
  - Chemistry
  - Biosynthesis (Fig. 24.3)
  - Testosterone
- FEMALE SEX HORMONES
- ESTROGENIC HORMONES (ESTROGENS)
  - Chemistry
  - Biosynthesis (Fig. 24.3)
  - Regulation
  - Transport
  - Mechanism of Action
  - Metabolism
  - Actions
  - Synthetic Estrogens
  - Abnormalities
- PROGESTATIONAL HORMONES (PROGESTINS)
- PROGESTERONE
  - Chemistry
  - Biosynthesis (Fig. 24.3)
  - Transport
  - Mechanism of Action
  - Metabolism
  - Actions
  - Synthetic Analogues
- HORMONES OF PLACENTA
- GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES (Table 24.1)
- HORMONES OF OTHER ENDOCRINE GLANDS
SECTION V: APPLIED BIOCHEMISTRY
25:Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
- NUCLEUS
- GENE
- CELL CYCLE
  - Importance
- CENTRAL DOGMA (FIG. 25.2)
- REPLICATION (DNA SYNTHESIS)
  - Definition
  - Importance
  - Type
- DNA REPLICATION IN PROKARYOTES
  - Initiation
  - Elongation
  - Termination
  - Inhibitors
- DNA REPLICATION IN EUKARYOTES
- DNA DAMAGE AND REPAIR
- MUTATIONS
  - Effects
- TRANSCRIPTION (RNA SYNTHESIS)
  - Definition
  - Importance
- TRANSCRIPTION IN PROKARYOTES
  - Initiation
  - Elongation
  - Termination
- POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL MODIFICATIONS
  - RNA Inhibitors
- TRANSCRIPTION IN EUKARYOTES
  - Reverse Transcription
- GENETIC CODE
  - Definition
    - Codon
  - Characteristics of Genetic Code
  - Importance
- TRANSLATION IN PROKARYOTES
  - Definition
  - Importance
  - Proteolytic Degradation
  - Covalent Modifications
  - Inhibitors
- TRANSLATION IN EUKARYOTES
- REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION
  - Purpose
  - Mode of Gene Regulation
  - Importance
- RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
  - Definition
  - Steps (Refer Fig. 25.8)
  - Hazards
- POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR)
  - Definition
  - Invented by
  - Steps
  - Applications
- BLOTTING TECHNIQUES
  - Types
- DNA SEQUENCING
- GENE THERAPY
  - Types
  - Methods
  - Uses/Applications/Targets
- HUMAN GENOME PROJECT
- BIOTECHNOLOGY
  - Definition
  - Historical Development
  - Branches (Divisions)
  - Scope/Importance
  - Process
  - Applications
  - Risks and Hazards
26:Immunology
- DEFINITIONS
- ANTIGEN
  - Antibodies
  - Types of Immunoglobulins (Refer to Ch. 4)
- THE COMPLEMENT SYSTEM
- MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX (MHC)
- MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES
27:Clinical Biochemistry
- DEFINITION
  - Alternative Names
- HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
  - Branches (Fig. 27.1)
  - Scope
- INSTRUMENTATION AND TECHNIQUES IN CLINICAL BIOCHEMISTRY
  - Management
  - Analysis of Body Fluids
- TYPES OF BIOCHEMICAL TESTS
- NORMAL VALUES/REFERENCE VALUES
28:Instrumentation andTechniques in Biochemistry
- COLORIMETRY
  - Colorimeter (Fig. 28.1)
  - Spectrophotometer
- ELECTROLYTE ANALYZER
  - Flame Photometer
  - Ion Selective Electrodes (ISE)
- AUTOANALYZERS
- BLOOD GAS ANALYZER
- PH METER
- ULTRACENTRIFUGE
  - Process
  - Applications
- CHROMATOGRAPHY
- ELECTROPHORESIS
- RADIOIMMUNOASSAY (RIA)
- ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY (ELISA)
29:Biochemistry in Medical and Paramedical Specialties
- OBJECTIVES
- BRANCHES
- BIOCHEMISTRY IN MEDICINE
- BIOCHEMISTRY IN PARAMEDICAL SPECIALTIES (ALLIED HEALTH SCIENCES COURSES)

INDEX

TOC
Index

×

Chapter Notes