INTRODUCTIONM
Human behavior is a complex phenomenon. All are interested in understanding human behavior. Primarily, it was the philosophers who took up the subject of human behavior and tried to find out the cause for such behavior. Thus, psychology has rich roots dating back into philosophy and physiology. Later on, as the element of speculative thinking decreased and objective experimental investigation increased, it gradually developed into a positive science. Now, it has been regarded as an independent branch of study. It explains the recent opening of the independent department of psychology in the various universities. It is the subject of modern era concerned with the study of human being and psychological process that can understand human being in a better way.
Meaning and Definition
Psychology as science of soul: Psychology has come from the Greek word ‘psyche’ which means ‘soul’ and ‘logos’ which means ‘to study’. Thus, psychology means study of soul. Hence, it was regarded as a talk about soul. Later on, it was observed that it is better to call psychology as the ‘science of soul’ rather than to ‘talk about soul’, as psychology is a science and better word because of the following reasons:
- Science is more systematic and exhaustive than talk. Talk goes on carelessly and loosely. It is usually muddled, vague, indefinite and fragmentary.
- Science is based on practical knowledge and implies it to help in prediction.
- Science helps to improve knowledge based on empirical observation.
- Science uses special technical terminology.
But the definition of considering psychology as study of soul was rejected because of following reasons:2
- Nature, origin and place of soul are not known. It has no physical existence, it cannot be seen and heard, it has no height and volume. It is a metaphysical concept.
- It is a theological concept based on certain theories of religion and relationship to god that makes psychology more of religion than a science.
- Soul makes the science speculative as it cannot be verified.
So, the definition of psychology as study of science was unscientific and hence this is discarded.
Psychology as science of mind: The term mind was considered better and it was substituted for soul. Hence, the study of soul psychology changed to the study of mind. Various views about mind:
Laymen's view; mind is something in the body or heart which feels or acts. If mind means something mysterious to ourself it would be just the same as soul. Hence this definition again got rejected.
Psychologist's view; mind is combination of some total of mental process and it stands for personal experiences of man, i.e. pleasure, pain, wishes, hope expectation, dream and desire, etc.
Many other characteristics and mental processes were also explained before rejecting the definition of psychology as study of mind like continuity, unity, immaterial and private.
Criticism of Definition
- Mind is subjective. We can know our own mind but not the others. So it is half true.
- Mind implies continuity and unity but it is lacking in abnormal human being, theories and animals.
Psychology as science of consciousness: Since 1857, psychology was defined as ‘science of consciousness’. Consciousness refers to awareness to self and others. Hence, consciousness stands for inner experience of man–his thoughts, feelings and memories, etc.
This definition of psychology as study of mind or consciousness is got rejected due to following reasons:
- A human can be conscious to his/her own mental activities and cannot know the consciousness of others. This method is like to introspection which is most subjective and least scientific method.
‘Psychology as a science of immediate experience with consciousness being the main subject matter’
(Wilhelm Wundt, 1832–1920)
‘Psychology is the science of conscious experience which is dependent upon the experiencing person’
(Titchner, 1876-1927)
Psychology as science of behavior: This is the most accepted definition of psychology in modern era. Behavior according to Woodworth is a collective nature of various types of activities: cognitive, conative and affective corresponding to knowing, doing and feeling. Behavior is classified in the following three categories:
- Cognitive behavior: It is concerned with knowing and thinking aspects, e.g. problem-solving
- Affective behavior: It is concerned with feelings, e.g. anger, fear, jealousy, etc.
- Conative behavior: It is concerned with motor activity, e.g. cycling, playing and running, etc.
It should be noted that no piece of behavior is purely of one category. It may be having dominance of any one aspects or equal partnership of all three.
Psychology as science of behavior has been defined by various Psychologists, some of these definitions are given below:
‘Psychology is a positive science of behavior’
(Watson)
‘Psychology is a science of behavior and experience’
(Skinner)
‘Psychology is concerned with the scientific investigation of behavior’
(Munn) ‘Psychology is the study of human behavior and human relationship’
(Crow and Crow)
‘Psychology is concerned with observable human behavior’
(Garrison and Others)
Analysis of Definition
If we analyze the definition of psychology given by different psychologists, we shall come to the following conclusions:
- Psychology is regarded as a science.
- It is a branch of natural science. It is a science of behavior and not of matter. It cannot be called pure science like mathematics and chemistry.
- It studies physical, mental, emotional, and social behavior. It studies cognitive activities like memory, thinking, imagination, learning, intelligence as well as psychophysiological characteristics of the individual.
- It studies the behavior of human being and animals.
Psychology as a Science
In the words of Prof Woodworth, ‘psychology can be defined as the science of the activities of the individual in relation to environment’. Let us understand this definition by explaining the various technical terms to justify psychology as a science.
Science–psychology is a science. Science is the systematic and methodological study of any breach of knowledge. A study cannot be called as science merely on the basis of its subject matter; what is even more important is the scientific method. It is the method which is science, not the subject matter. Thus, a characteristics feature of science is its method rather than its field of study. Salient features of science are as follows:
Scientific Method
- A science follows scientific method. The main steps of the scientific method are given below:
- Observation: Minute and detailed observation is the first step in scientific method. An observer should use best reliable and valid instrument for observation. The accuracy of the instruments should be ascertained before its use.
- Recording: The observation should be carefully recorded and reported in its complete manner.
- Classification of findings: After recording and writing of observation, the findings collected must be classified and organized in logical sequence.
- Analysis, interpretation and generalization: The scientific method analyzes the findings and makes them meaningful and generalized to other population. It should be kept in mind that while making generalization some general conclusion is drawn. These generalizations sometimes known as universal laws.5
- Verification: This is the last step in the scientific method. It deals with verification of universal law in order to ascertain their validity. It helps to make the law scientific and universally accepted.
- Factuality: Science is the study of facts and figures and the search for true facts.
- Universality: Scientific laws are verified and universally accepted.
- Validity: Scientific laws are valid at all times and at all places across the globe. They are open to examination at all times. They will be found universally accepted.
- Discovery of cause and effect relationship: Science studies cause and effect relationship. It searches for cause and effect relationship.
- Prediction: Science makes prediction for future outcome.
So, on the basis of above listed criteria of science, it can be concluded that psychology is a science because;
- Psychology follows scientific method to observe and record the behavior and clarify, analyze, generalized and verified for truth.
- Psychology is based on true facts (empirical and factual).
- Principles of psychology are valid and universally accepted.
- Psychology defines cause and effect relationship.
- Psychology enables to predict.
It should be noted that psychology is a positive empirical science. It is positive because it is concerned with mind and behavior as they actually are. It is empirical because, like other sciences, it uses the method of observation of facts.
Activities
The second technical term used in Woodworth definition was activities. Psychology studies the activities of the individual. The word activity is used here in a very broad sense. In the word of Woodworth, ‘any manifestation of life can be called activities’. It includes;
- Physical or motor activities—for example, walking, cycling, playing, boxing, driving and washing, etc.
- Mental or intellectual activities—for example, learning, thinking, remembering, learning and observing, etc.
Sometimes, these above mentioned activities are classified under three kinds of behavior, i.e. cognitive, conative and affective.
Individual
Psychology is the science of activities of the individual. Individual is a psychophysical organism (having mind and body). Psychology studies activities of all types of individuals, i.e. children, adolescents, adults, normal person, abnormal person, intelligent person, feeble minded person and even animals.
Environment
Psychology studies the activities of individual in relation to the environment. Environment refers to all types of circumstances that influence the behavior of an organism since conception to death. Environment may be physical, intellectual, social, moral, economic and political and cultural forces. All these forces have the influence on the activities, behavior and personality of the individual.
- Physical environment: It includes food, temperature, climate, home and social building, etc
- Intellectual/mental environment: It consists of books, libraries, laboratories, museum, intellectual takes and interest of parents etc.
- Social environment: It includes members of the family, like parents, relatives, friends and teachers.
- Emotional environment: It consists of emotional nature of family, friends, relatives and teachers.
- Relationship: It is also noted that there could be three different types of relationship between individual and environment.
- Dependence: The individual has to depend on environment for the development of emotional, physical, mental and other types of activities and influenced by the way he participates in the environment. His participation influences his environment.
- Participation: Individual's physical, social, emotional and mental development is influenced by the way he participates in the environment.
- Interaction: The interaction naturally takes place between individual and environment and both affect each other.
So, Psychology can be described as study of the individual which deals with behavior and experience. Individual may be 7human being or animal, child, adolescent, adult, men, women, normal, gifted, backwards, intelligent, dull and feeble minded, behavior can be good or bad, desirable or undesirable, moral or immoral, sociable or unsociable, it becomes the subject matter of psychology.
BRANCHES AND FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGY (APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY)
The entire study and scope of psychology has been divided in the following branches and fields:
- Normal and abnormal psychology
- Normal psychology: It studies the behavior and mental processes of normal as well as of abnormal persons. Normal psychology deals with the behavior and mental processes of normal individuals.
- Abnormal psychology: Abnormal psychology studies the behavior of a person suffering from mental diseases. It studies cause, nature, and preventive measures of abnormal behavior each as hysteria, and phenomena of split personality. Attempts are made to cure abnormal behavior.
- Human and animal psychology
- Human psychology: It studies the behavior of human being only. Some of the branches of human psychology are described here as follows:
- Child psychology: It studies physical, motor, intellectual, emotional, social, moral and aesthetic development of the child. It studies the behavior of the child as well as his various aspects of the personality.
- Adolescent psychology: Adolescents are those people who are in the age group 12 to 19 years. Adolescent psychology deals with behavior and personality pattern of adolescents.
- Adult psychology: It deals with the behavior of adult human being whose mental level is higher and behavior is more natural than those of children.
- Individual and social psychology
- Individual psychology (differential psychology): Individual psychology studies the facts of variations existing among different individuals. Individual differ in respect to physique, intelligence, attitude, achievement, aptitudes, interest, education, race and culture, etc.
- Social psychology (group psychology): Social psychology studies the behavior of the individual in relation to social situation. It deals with various types of group phenomena such as public opinion, crowd, propaganda, attitudes, belief, inter-group, inter-race, international conflict and tension. This social psychology studies individual as a member of social group.
- Pure and applied psychology
- Pure psychology: When any science is studied for sake of advancement of knowledge, we call it a pure science. But when its study is done with a view to find new knowledge for practical human purposes or social utility, we call it applied sciences. Hence, pure psychology studies the mental processes and behavior of human being and animals to discover fundamental laws and principles underlying their functioning.
- Applied psychology: Applied psychology applies the general principles of psychology for practical utilities. Some of the branches of applied psychology are described here as follows:
- Legal or criminal psychology: Legal or criminal psychology studies the behavior or person with criminal intimidation and various legal proceeding against them.
- Industrial psychology or organizational behavior: Industrial psychology studies the industrial problem with regards to selection, placement, efficiency and need of counseling, etc.
- Military psychology: This branch deals with the use of psychological principles and techniques in the world of military science; how to keep the morale high during war, how to fight the war of propaganda and intelligence services, how to secure better recruitment of the personal for armed forces and how to improve motivational climate and leadership.9
- Political psychology: This branch relates itself with the use of psychological principles and techniques in studying politics and deriving political games. The knowledge of the dynamic of group behavior, the judgment of public opinion, qualities of leadership, psychology of propaganda and suggested the art of diplomacy are the key concepts of this branch.
- Environmental psychology: This branch studies how the behavior is influenced by environmental factors such as home, school, space and noise etc. It is proved by various studies that there is a close relationship between environment and behaviors.
- Educational psychology: This branch tries to apply the psychological principles, theories, and techniques to human behavior in educational situation. The subject matter of this branch is teaching learning process, learning situation, learning material and method, learning environment and teachers.
- Clinical psycholog: It describes and explains causes and treatment modalities of abnormal behavior or any kind of mental problem. It suggests psychotherapeutic treatment for people who suffer from mental illness. Psychotherapeutic treatments are psychotherapy, relaxation therapy, cognitive therapy, behavior therapy, family therapy, family drama, etc.
- Animal psychology: Animal psychology is concerned with the study of animal behavior under controlled conditions. It deals with the study of animal behavior through various experiment and observations.
- Developmental psychology: The subject matter of development psychology is product and process of growth and development of human being from conception till date, various physical and psychological changes, development of personality traits, and other Developmental changes.
Apart from the above listed branches, some emerging trends of psychology are:- Health psychology: This branch deals with the influence of psychological variables as physical and mental health. This field is related with the issue such as stress, depression, psychosomatic illness etc. It also concentrates on hospital environment, nurse patient relationship, promotion of mental health, lack of awareness about various disease and problems.
- Community psychology: This field deals with promoting mental health at community level. The community psychologist tries to prevent and solve psychological problems by evaluating and improving community as a whole.
- Aerospace psychology: This field is concerned with physiological and psychological changes which take place when individuals are in space crafts or aircrafts which travel on high altitude atmosphere and other conditions are entirely different when a person goes beyond a particular height and prolongs his/her stay away from the earth.
- Physiological psychology: It is concerned with structure and functions of sense organ, nervous system, glands and muscle underlying our behavior.
- Experimental psychology: It studies mental process and behaviors by means of scientific experiments; mainly in laboratory or controlled condition.
- Parapsychology: It is one of the recent developments of psychology. It deals with problems like extrasensory perception, and telepathy etc. An institute of parapsychology is established in Rajasthan (Sri Ganganagar).
- Criminal psychology: Studying criminal psychology improves the ways and means of crime detection, intentions of criminal person, ways and kind of doing crimes and others related phenomena related to crime.
- Geriatric psychology: It studies various changes in behavior during old age stage, i.e. changes in mood, isolation, feeling of love, sympathy, affection and sexual desire, etc.
- Adult psychology: This branch of psychology deals with various issues related to adults, i.e. growth and development, personality changes, attitude formation, interest, adjustment problem and their solution, etc. The knowledge of adult psychology helps in adult education, and understands the need of guidance and counseling for professionals to handle the adult problems.
- Correctional psychology: This branch deals with the correction of many abnormal or correctional problems and activities and suggest relevant measures to correct them, i.e. undesirable and maladaptive behavior.
- Individual psychology: Individual psychology deals with the study of individual differences among human being and their impact on outcome in achievement. Individual psychology studies the nature and cause of individual differences.
- Consumer psychology: This branch is concerned with the various psychological aspects of consumer and related issues such as interest, attitude, bargaining and buying and selling related to various products in the market.
SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is the study of human behavior and experience of individual in relation to its environment. Whatever is concerned with the scientific study of behavior and experience of individual in relation to environment forms the subject matter of psychology. The individual may be man, woman, children, elder, normal, abnormal, social or unsocial, moral or immoral, social or antisocial, it becomes the subject matter of psychology.
Thus, we can say that the whole life of an individual in its every manifestation comes under the scope of psychology. Thus, the scope of psychology is very wide in the word of William James, ‘all the chairs of heaven and furniture of the earth ‘fall under the scope of psychology.
The following points highlights the scope of psychology:
- Mental processes: All the mental processes like sensation, perception, attention, thinking, reasoning, learning, memory, imagination fall within the scope of psychology. As Prof Stout remarked, ‘all the mental process which occurs in the life of a man fall in the scope of psychology’. We can observe various mental processes directly by looking inside our own mind.13
- Expression and behavior: The appearance, expression and behavior of ourselves and other constitute subject matter of psychology. All the three forms of behavior or activities (i.e. cognitive, conative and affective behavior) are included in the scope of psychology.
- Physiological process: Various physiological process and bodily changes are studied in educational psychology. Various mental processes are accompanied by physiological changes and bodily activities. For example, emotions are accompanied by physiological changes in heart rate, pulse rate and blood pressure, digestive system, and hyper activity of glands and nervous system take place. Every emotional experience involves various physiological changes.
RELATION OF PSYCHOLOGY WITH OTHER SCIENCES
Psychology and Philosophy
At one time psychology was concerned with a part and parcel of philosophy. Just recently due to popularity of experimental methods, psychology has moved away from philosophy. Yet there is a close relationship between the two. Both psychology and philosophy attempt to interpret human behavior. Whatever truth philosophy discovers are in fact based on psychology. Even the most important branch of philosophy, i.e. epistemology is based on psychology. Epistemology investigates the origin of knowledge, its nature, validity and the way it is realized. This inquiry is never possible unless help is taken from psychological explanation. The metaphysical (metaphysics—a branch of philosophy) discussion are based on psychological interpretation of natural phenomena. Besides, epistemology and metaphysics, logic and ethics are important branch of philosophy.
Difference Between Psychology and Philosophy
- Difference in nature: Both psychology and philosophy differs from each other in nature. The nature of psychology is scientific and not philosophical as that of philosophy.
- Difference in approach: The main characteristic of philosophical approach is integral and synthetic. But as a science, psychology is analytical and limited in its stand point.
- Differences in method: Scientific methods are used in psychology, i.e. experimental and observation method but the methods used in philosophy are concentration, meditation, logic and institution are subjective one.
- Individual mind versus universal mind: Psychology is concerned with individual mind while philosophy focuses on universal mind.
Psychology and Physiology
Relation between Psychology and Physiology
Physiology studies the function of the various organs like stomach, heart and systems, e.g. digestive or circulatory system of the body. Psychology studies the interaction of one system to another and their functions.
Psychology is the science of behavior and experience of the individual. Experiences of an individual are deeply connected with physiological process especially in various systems. Hence, psychology studies the physiological process in order to account for mental processes. Various organ of the body, system, muscular and glandular activities influence human behavior in one or another way. ‘Healthy mind lives in a healthy body’ is an ancient and well known proverb. Hence, psychology and physiology are closely related to each other.
Differences between Psychology and Physiology
- Difference in scope: The scope of psychology is mental activities and behavior whereas the physiology concerned to physical activities.
- Difference in approach: Psychology and physiology differ to each other in their approach. Psychology studies the reactions of the whole physical organism towards the other stimuli. Physiology studies the different physical activities separately.
Psychology and Sociology
Relation between Psychology and Sociology
Psychology intimately is related to sociology. Sociology is the science of society, i.e. of social relationship. It deals with the activities of a group of people taken as a whole. It studies social institution, customs traditions, culture, norms and other groups or behavior, etc. Psychology studies the human behavior which is 15influenced by customs traditions, culture, norms and social factors. Hence, there is considerable overlapping between the province of psychology and sociology.
- Both psychology and sociology are positive science
- Both are factual and use scientific methods for study
- In both, it is difficult to be absolutely objective
- Both have lesser power of prediction than other pure sciences.
Difference between Psychology and Sociology
- Difference in attitude: The attitude of psychologist is individualistic and that of sociologist is socialistic.
- Difference in unit: The unit of psychology is individual while sociology considers society or a group of people as a unit. Psychology studies man as individual, its interactions whereas sociology studies the society and its pattern and interaction as a whole.
- Difference in methods: Methods of psychology and sociology differ from each other.
Psychology and Education
Education and psychology are two distinct branches of knowledge; though they are closely related. Modern education is based on psychology. Child is imparted education after making a thorough study of his interest, aptitude, intelligence and personality. Without help of psychology various problems of education may not be solved. A preliminary knowledge of psychology has a great impact on various aspects of education.
Psychology is the science of behavior. Education is the modification of behavior. Education enables unfolding and developing the powers of the pupil and molding his character, personality and behavioral patterns. It is the process of helping him in making adjustment with social environment. As BN Jha said, ‘education has to depend on psychological findings for what is done and how it is done.’
The knowledge of psychology is helpful in education in following ways:
- Knowledge of innate nature: Psychology helps in knowing the innate nature of the pupil. It helps to make the teaching successful while keeping in view the innate nature.
- Knowledge of learning: Psychology helps in education, in understanding laws, methods, and factors of learning. Knowledge of related aspects of education enables a teacher in arousing attention and interest of the pupils. He can motivate the students for using effective methods of learning and memorization.
- Psychology and aim of education: Psychology helps the teacher in realization of the educational aims by helping him to bring about improvement in the quality of instruction by providing him insight into the child as interest, habits, emotions, intelligence and personality.
- Psychology and time-table: Time-table for imparting education can be prepared in accordance with sound psychological principles.
- Psychology and discipline: Psychology helps a teacher to maintain discipline in class by making judicious use of rewards and punishments.
- Psychology and research: Psychology has proved useful in the field of research. We can control, direct and predict the behavior of students on the basis of research studies in classroom teaching.
Psychology and Nursing
Nursing is the service to community. Knowledge of psychology helps health professional, i.e. nurses, doctors and other paramedical staff, to deal with patient and family members in a better way. As it is clear now that the behavior of an individual is subject matter of psychology. A sound knowledge of psychological theories and principles helps to understand the complex client behavior in clinical setting and enable to plan strategy to deal it effectively. There is a close relationship between nursing and psychology. Knowledge of psychology helps the students in various perspectives.
Relevance of Psychology to Nursing
Nurse is the central part of heath care team. A nurse perform varied types of duties and role in clinical setting to promote, restore and maintain health of their patient and significant others. A Nurse 17deals with different types of patients and their significant family members having different mental and physical problems. Thus, in performing the duties of nursing profession, it is very essential for a nurse to be more knowledgeable of different theories and principles of psychology to deal with the individual.
The knowledge of psychology helps the nurse in the following ways:
To help understand the relatives and significant of others: It is common problem for a nurse to deal the relatives and significant of others in the hospital. It becomes a challenging task to discipline them in agreeing to the hospital rules and having patience for expected outcomes of care. A sound knowledge of psychology may helps a nurse to deal with relatives and significant of others by understanding the reason of unusual behavior at hospital.
To help get adjusted to professional environment: It is very difficult for a novice nurse to adjust in hospital environment and with member of health care team. A nurse have to work in team and sometime all alone. The study of psychology will helps a nurse to understand the people around you and enable better adjustment with other health professional and in hospital.
To maintain balance between social and professional life: It is very essential for a nurse to maintain balance between social and professional life to provide quality care. The study of psychology helps to understand various aspects of personal, professional and social life and enables to adjust in different circumstances.
To help focus on study: Psychology helps a student nurse to focus on study by adhering with the principles, law and theories of perception, attitude, concentration, forgetting and motivation. Sound knowledge of above-mentioned psychological aspects helps a student nurse to achieve desired goals in professional life.18
To help in conducting psychometric assessment: The study of psychology will help a nurse to learn and conduct the various psychometric assessment of the cognitive processes, emotional behavior, attention, personality traits, anxiety, stress and level of adjustment, etc.
To provide quality nursing care: An adequate knowledge and information of needs, desires, attitude, likes and dislikes of a patient helps a nurse to provide quality nursing care. The study of psychology may equip a nurse to have sufficient background knowledge of all attributes to take proper professional decision for providing needed nursing care to patient and his well wishers.
Community services: Knowledge and understanding of socio-cultural system of various social customs, traditions, taboos, and myths enable a community nurse to render effective community services and promote interpersonal affiliation and emotional integration between and within social group.
Promoting guidance and counseling: Knowledge of psychology helps in providing guidance and counseling services to person seeking solutions to their problems in the education, employment and personal life. A good person including nurse tries to understand all essential aspects of behavior and potentialities through various psychological measures and techniques and then suggest and tries possible ways and means to solve the difficulties of the person who has come for guidance and counseling services.
To understand development dynamics: By the knowledge of developmental psychology a nurse will be able to understand the various theories of growth and development milestones at various development stages.
Promoting mental health and hygiene: A nurse play vital role in promoting good mental health among his/her patients by the application of the knowledge of psychology. She will be able to understand different coping strategies to overcome stress, and various preventive measures to promote mental health and hygiene.
For better self-development: Psychology helps the individual to know his/her assets and limitation, abilities and shortcomings, habits and temperament, interest and attitude, etc. The understanding of self may lead one to set the level of his/her aspiration, change habits, seek self-control and strive for his/her adequate development and progress. It may help in proper catharsis and training of emotions, building up proper sentiments and decisions-making abilities and 19self-actualization in order to develop a balanced and integrated personality.
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology, as we have pointed out before, is a science of behavior and experience of the individual in relation to environment, being a science, it has a special tools, procedures and or methods which helps in the collection of organization of facts or data. Methods save time, energy, efforts and efficiency. Some psychologists are in the view that because of these methods psychology is a science, and this very thing speaks of the importance of methods.
Meaning of method: The teaching method implies the system that we adopt in gaining knowledge of truth. Charles Gide said in this, ‘in scientific language the term ‘method’ is used to designate the road that must be followed to lead the discovery of truth.’
According to Oxford Dictionary, ‘method is a way of having something, system of procedure, orderliness and conscious of regularity etc’
Method and technique: Method is a wide-term than technique. In a method we may have many techniques. For example: free association and dream analysis are techniques of psychoanalytic method of Sigmund Freud.
List of Methods of Psychology
- Subjective observation/introspection
- Objective observation
- Experimental method
- Psychoanalytic method
- Clinical methods, i.e. case study method and developmental case study
- Correlation method
- Differential method (survey method)
Beside these methods, we have certain techniques and test like:
- Questionnaire
- Interview
- Rating scale
- Checklist
CHIEF METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Introspection or Subjective Method
This is the oldest method of psychology. It could be the study method when psychology was defined as science of consciousness. It is derived from two words: ‘intro’ and ‘spection’. ‘Intro’ means ‘within’ and ‘Spection’ means ‘looking’. Hence, etymologically speaking introspection means ‘looking within’. Woodworth views that introspection is self-observation. Introspection is a developed form of self-consciousness. It can be defined as an inner observation of the mental events by the man himself at the time of occurrence.
Advantages of Introspection
Simplest and economic: It is one of the most simple and economic method and it does not require any laboratory, costly equipments or any other help because the individual will work as subject as well as object.
- Private mental processes: With the help of introspection, private mental processes which we do not want to share with other, can be explored and evaluated for their importance, i.e. sexual desires.
- Time and place no bar: It can be done at any place and at any time because individual mind is his/her own behavior.
- Universal method: In this method, we can study all types of individuals and their minds. The dacoits and smugglers cannot be studied by using experimental methods.
- Improvement in personality: It is useful method in bringing improvement in one's personality, for example, if there is any sort of abnormality, the individual can suggest some remedy to remove it by introspection.
- Time honored method: It is the time honored method which is available only in psychology not in other sciences.
- Mind under intoxicants: It is the best method for knowing the mind under intoxicants, feelings, emotions, sentiments, prejudice and pains.
- Part of experimental report: It forms an important part of experimental report. While writing experimental report we include introspective report of the subjects. Introspective report is essential.
Limitations of Introspection
- Most subjective: It is most subjective, personal and private method. The result cannot be objective and valid, and results cannot verify them. So it is unscientific method.
- The observer and subject are same: In this method mind is divided into two parts, i.e. knower and known. But practically mind cannot be divided into two parts, i.e. if we want to introspect anger, when we try to concentrate. In the other words of William James; ‘it is trying to see the darkness by switching on light’. Introspection needs lot of constant practice and experience.
- Not of universal application: This method cannot apply on children, abnormal people, illiterate and animals.
- Restricted to one person: Introspection is limited to individual is own mental processes. We cannot have the view of other people. It is impossible to read the mind of others.
- Subconscious and unconscious experience: It is not applicable to unconscious and subconscious mind.
- Birth and death experience: Certain experience like birth and death cannot be introspected. Hence, it is inadequate to explore all human experiences.
- Mental experiences: Mental experiences are transitory and short lived. They evaporate as we begin to introspect them.
- No doubt, introspection has many limitations, but it is very easy and least expensive method of psychology. In experimental psychology, introspection report of the subject is recorded and experiment is regarded as incomplete without introspect report of the subject.
Objective Observation
This method of observation is old as introspection. It is also called naturalistic observation. Observation is of two types;
- Controlled observation: Observation under controlled condition.
- Uncontrolled observation: It is also called naturalistic observation.
Steps in the observation method
- Recording the observation: The observed observation should be clearly and carefully recorded.
- Analyzing the observation: After the recording, the observation should be analyzed.
- Interpreting and generalizing the observation: This is the last step in observation process to give the meaning to data.
Characteristics of Good Observation
- Observation should be specific
- It should be systematic and planned
- It should be objective and scientific
- It should be whole.
Advantages of Observation Method
- Objective and scientific: This is more scientific and objective method of psychology than introspection.
- Reliable and valid: It is more valid and reliable method than introspection.
- Simple and economic: It is simple as well economic method as it does not need any laboratory and costly equipments.
- Helpful for specific population: Controlled observation is helpful to observe the behavior of children, abnormal person, animals, as individual or group.
- Basis of experimental method: It provides a ground basis for experimental method. Experimental method is nothing but objective observation under controlled or laboratory conditions.
- Useful in educational situation: With the help of this method of psychology, supervision of classroom teaching can be made; behavior of children can be detected, problem can be identified and outcome or corrective strategies can be planned.
Limitations of Observation Method
- Trained observer: It is very difficult to get a trained observer. Untrained observer may gather bias and irrelevant findings.
- Subjective method: Unplanned observation will be subjective in nature. It can be biased from observer side too. Sometimes observer may mix his/her likes and dislikes in observation.
- Long wait: Sometimes, observer has to wait for a very long time to occur the incident. For example, for observing the behavior of an angry child, an observer may have to wait for long time to happen angry behavior.
- Difficulty in observing personal problems: Some personal problems and experiences cannot be observed by observation, i.e. sexual experiences.
- Difficulty in studying unconscious mind: Observation is not helpful to record experience of unconscious mind.
- Difficulty in studying internal behavior: Observation only records the external behavior. It is not a good method to record internal behavior.
Though naturalistic observation has certain limitations yet it is considerable good method in the field of child psychology and educational psychology.
Experimental Method
Experimental method holds the central position in the psychology as well as in other sciences. It is experimentation which has the credit of bringing educational psychology to the level of exact sciences. Hence, modern psychology places the greatest emphasis as experimentation.
The experimental method first introduced by William Wundt in 1879 at Leipzig laboratory at Germany. In 1880, Ebbinghaus conducted many experiments on memory.
Essential for an Experiment
- Psychological laboratory: There should be fully equipped psychological laboratory with necessary equipments.
- Experimenter: There is an experimenter or experimenters.
- Subject: There is an individual subject or group of subject on whom the experiment is performed. In physical sciences experiments are performed on inorganic or dead subjects, whereas in psychology experiments are conducted on living organism.
- Stimulus: By stimulus we mean ‘any physical force in the environment which impinges the organism to behave or to react’.
- Variables: The term ‘variables’ means which can be vary or change from one individual to another or one subject to another subject. Variables may be independent and dependent variables.
- Independent variable: Independent variable is one which is systematically and independently manipulated by the experimenter to see the effect on dependent variable. It is also known as input variable or treatment in medical research.
- Dependent variable: It is also known outcome variable. It is variable on which effect of independent variable is observed. For example, if we want to see the effect of green tea on blood pressure, here, green tea is independent variable and blood pressure is dependent variable.
Symbolically, it can be represented like this
Here,
X1– Independent variable
O – Observation/intervention
X2– Dependent variable
Steps followed in Psychological Experiments
A systematic experiment will follow following steps:
- Defining the problem: First of all problem should be defined clearly and experimenter should know what factors should be controlled and what to change.
- Selection of subject: That is, individual or group of subject on whom experiment has to perform.
- Setting the material: That is, selection of research instrument, place of experiment, etc.
- Instructions to subject: That is instructions to subject what to follow and what not to follow.
- Procedure: How the experiment will start and carried out, what steps to be followed, how much time it will take to complete.
- Observing the response of subject: Record the output of the subjects towards input variables.
- Getting introspect report of the subject: Self-evaluation of the report.
- Collection of data and finding result: Collect data by using appropriate research instrument and compile to make them meaningful.
- Analysis and interpretation of data: Analyze the data and interpret them to draw conclusion.
Advantages of Experimental Method
- Reliable and valid: Experimental method is most reliable, valid, systemic, most precise and most objective method of psychology.
- Universal application: This method is universally applicable to all, i.e. children, adult and even animals.
- Wide application: Experimental method is widely applicable in all branches of psychology especially in intelligence measurement, personality measurement, attitude measurement, individual difference and mental disorders.
- Quantitative measurement: It has introduced quantitative measurement in psychology. Individual studied internally by this method in quantitative manner like the study of emotion, motivation, learning and perception, etc.
- Systematic and planned: Experimental is systematically preplanned with full control on external environment to get accurate findings.
- Verification: Results of the experimental method can be verified.
- Generalization: Result of the experimental method can be generalized to other population.
- Use in education: Experimental method has wide implications in almost all areas of education, i.e. curriculum development, method of teaching, recruitment of teachers, guidance and counseling, etc.
Limitation of Experimental Method
- Expensive: It is very expensive and costly method among all methods of psychology. It needs lot of gadgets and equipments to handle experimental method.
- Artificiality: There is certain amount of artificiality of laboratory conditions and this artificiality hinder generalization of results.
- Difficulty in controlling variables: All variables cannot be controlled in experimental method. Lack of control on variables leads to spurious results.
- Every phenomenon cannot be studied: Certain phenomena cannot be studied under laboratory environment like cause of mortality and abnormal behavior, etc.
Although experimental method has certain limitations, yet it is very useful in almost all branches of educational psychology as well as in the various aspects of education.26
Psychoanalytic Method
The psychoanalytic theory was postulated by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud (1939) who has been called as ‘father of psychiatry’ is credited as the first to identify the development by stages. He believed that an individual's basic charter is formed at an age of 5. Freud categorizes his theory according to following ways:
- Structure of personality, i.e. id, ego and superego
- Topography of mind, i.e. conscious, sub or pre-conscious and unconscious
- Psychosexual stages of development, i.e. oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital.
Structure of Personality
Freud organized the structure of personality into three main components; the id, ego and superego.
- Id: The id contain all our biological based drives—the way to eat, drink, eliminate, sex etc. The sexual energy that underlies these urges is called ‘libido’. The id operates according to the ‘pleasure principle’. That is, it desires to satisfy its urges immediately irrespective to rules, realities of life or moral of any kind. Id present at birth, it endows the infant with instinctual drives that seek to satisfy needs and achieve immediate gratification. Id drive behavior are impulses and may be irrational in nature.
- Ego: Ego begins to develop at an age, i.e. 4–5 month of birth. Ego works on ‘reality principle’. The ego experiences the reality of the external world, understand it and work accordingly. A primary function of the ego is that mediator, which is to maintain harmony between the external world, the id and the super ego. Development of strong ego is a good sign of all round development of personality.
- Superego: This is also known as ‘conscience’. The super ego functions on ‘ideal or perfection principle’. The super ego starts developing at age of 3 to 6 years. It internalizes the values and moral of family, friends and neighbors. Super ego helps to control the impulses of the id and delay the gratification impulses until the situation is appropriate. Improper development of super ego leads to low self-confidence in an individual.
According to Freud, all human behavior can be understood in terms of the dynamic equilibrium among id, ego and super ego. 27The id demand to satisfy its immediate felt need irrespective of violation of norms of others and society, and ego will help to control the action of id by delaying or compromising the situation. A well balanced personality is governed by the ego and psychopathic by id. The aim of psychoanalysis is to restore the balance, where id was ‘there shall be ego’.
Topography of Mind
Freud said that human brain is a storehouse of information and on the basis of recall of information; brain is combination of the following three parts:
- The conscious: The conscious mind is concerned to the information which can be freely recalled and for recalling of these information effort are not needed. It covers only 10% of total brain.
- The unconscious: This is the largest portion of the brain. Freud claimed that the mind is like an ice-berg in that most of its portion is hidden beneath the surface and called unconscious mind. It covers around 80% of total human brain. It stores all the information related to repressed conflicts like desires, wishes, motives, feelings and drives–many of which may be related to sex and aggression, etc. This hidden treasure is responsible for most of the human behavior.
- Sub or pre-conscious: This section of brain contain only around 10% of total brain. Some of the daily information may goes and store in the subconscious mind. Recalling the information from unconscious mind need some effort and time. Then, it is often referred as ‘tip on tongue’.
Psychosexual Stage of Personality Development
Freud believed that initial stage of perssonality development is an important predictor of adult personality. He described five stages of personality development also known as psychosexual stage of personality development. He places emphasis on first five year of life and believed characteristics development during these five years had great impact on adult personality. Fixation on early stage of development will almost certainly result in psychopathology.
- The oral stage (0–18 months): In this stage, mouth represents the first sex organ for providing pleasure to the child. Focus of 28energy is mouth. During this stage behavior is directed by id. At the age of 4–6 month, the development of ego begins and child starts to view the self as separate from the mothering figure.
- The anal stage (18 months–3 years): The interest of the child shift from mouth to the excretory organ, i.e. anal or urethra. During this stage id is slowly brought under the control of ego. The child enjoys this stage by passing or holding the body waste material through anus or urethra. The anal stage end with the toilet training.
- The phallic stage (3–6 years): The major task during this stage is the identification with parents of the same sex and development of sexual identity. The child drives pleasure by stimulating genitalia. The development of oedipus complex (male) and electra complex (female) take places during this stage. Freud described it as an unconscious desire to eliminate the parent of same sex and to possess the parent of the opposite sex.
- The latency stage (6–12 years): At this stage, children show a distinct preference for same sex relationship, even rejecting of opposite sex.
- The genital stage (13–30 years): At this stage, heterogeneous sexual attraction begin, libido is reawakened as genital organ mature. Individual focus is on relationship with member of the opposite sex. Sexual maturity develops and gender identity also completely developed.
Clinical Methods
It is one of the most important methods of psychology to collect the detailed information on the problem of the maladjustment and deviant cases. This technique borrowed from medical sciences in the field of social sciences. The main objective of this method is to study individual case or cases of groups to detect and diagnose their specific problem in order to suggest therapeutic measure to rehabilitate them in their own environment. To collect data pertaining to case, it utilizes various techniques to compile relevant information which has some direct and indirect links with the problem of case. The case is studied intensively in temporal sequence from birth of the individual to the present manifestation of the problems in overt activities.29
The objective of the clinician is to detect or to go into unconscious of the individual to pinpointing local underlying cases of the problem and to suggest remedial measures. The complete and detailed study of a case may involve the use of observation, interview, medical examination and use of various psychological test, i.e. intelligence, personality, aptitude, interest etc. The clinician collects the information about the case in totality. Common used clinical methods are:
The clinical case study: This method is specifically important in various emotional problems, various disabling conditions like physical, speech, learning difficulties, mental illness, delinquency and other behavior problems.
Case study method generally used in case of a person suffering from mental disorder or behavioral disorders. It is used to collect the different types of information of the individual to identify the condition influencing his behavior. In other words, in case study method, the past and present situation of the individual is explored to find out the factors influencing his behavior. In this method an attempts is made to explore the cause of present motives or intention of an individual. Hence, it is systematic, complete and intensive history of the individual, his family background, his physical, social, emotional, intellectual and personal development. Nothing is left which is likely having effect on present conditions of the case to develop an in-depth understanding of the case.
So, the preparation of case study is not a work of single individual whereas it is a combine adventure of professionals and personals. Some important steps of this method are given here:
- Preliminary information: name, age, gender, education, social status, family background, family type and size, number of children etc.
- Past history: From conception of at least from infancy to till today. Main emphasis is on developmental milestones and achievements of the person.
- Present history/condition: This may be collected under following headings; physical, mental, social, emotional, interest. School achievement, job achievement, etc.
These are the tentative list of various sources from which information may be collected to prepare a case history/study. In brief, we can say that case study method helps to understand the root cause of problem and it is very valuable method in suggesting remedial measures to rehabilitate them.30
Developmental case study: Developmental case study or genetic method generally used to collect data in the following time frame pattern to understand development structure of the individual.
Longitudinal approach: In this approach information are collected over a period of long time to understand the various changes in the case at different period of interval i.e. from birth to adolescent stage.
Cross-sectional approach: In which we select sample from different age level to study the specific aspects of development.
Steps Involved in Case Study
A psychologist follows following steps in case study method:
- Selection of case: That is, a case with any psychological and behavioral problems.
- Collection of information: Information are collected from multiple sources like patient, significant family members, teachers, friends, and records, etc.
- Analysis of data: Once information are collected, it is compiled to analyze and make them meaningful.
- Removing the causes: That is, application of remedial or adjustment measures.
- Follow-up the cases: That is a short or long term follow-up is designed to determine the effectiveness of remedial or adjustment measures applied.
Characteristics of a Good Case Study
A comprehensive case study should have following characteristics:
- Completeness: A case study must be complete and comprehensive in all aspects. It should cover all the necessary details needed to rule out diagnosis.
- Continuity of data: The information collected must be in the sequence like background information, present chief complaints, present history of illness and so on.
- Valid information: The information collected must be valid. Collected information should be cross checked with the information of informant or case sheet of the patient.
- Confidential recording: A case study should keep all the information of an individual private and confidential.
Scientific synthesis and analysis: Once the case study is over, the recorded information should be synthesized and analyzed to rule out the diagnosis.31
Uses of Case Study Method
- Comprehensive study: Case study method useful for comprehensive and complete analysis of an individual
- Helpful in diagnosis: This method is helpful for findings causes of maladjustment of a person and then findings out suitable treatment.
- Identify school problems: This method is useful in the study of school problems such as severe reading disability, sever stemmer, stuttering, chronic delinquent and severe emotional disturbances, etc.
Limitations of Case Study
- Subjective method: It is a subjective method. A person who collects information may project his own problems, plans, ideas, attitudes, values into the report.
- Lengthy method: It is lengthy method and time-consuming method of psychology.
- Need trained experts: A comprehensive case study is the result of effort of a trained person.
- Difficult to prepare and interpret: Sometimes, it is very difficult to prepare case study as patient family members will not cooperate. It also takes lot of time and help of experts to interpret the results.
- Limited scope: The case study method has limited scope of generalization. This method is not of universal application.
- Depends on memory: Largely the methode of case study method depends on memory. Sometimes, recalling the recorded information may be inaccurate or over inter operated. Memory may fail or deceive the person.
Correlation Method
This is non-experimental research method. A correlation is defined as a relationship between two variables such that when change in one variable leads to change in another variable. For example, there is a strong relationship between the use of drugs in first trimester and development of mental retardation in fetus. The more the use of drug leads to more cognitive disturbance in a child.
Differential Method (Survey Method)
It is used to study individual difference among individuals. Studies in the field of psychology make an extensive use of statistical 32survey which is based of sampling by collecting data through direct observation. This method makes use of various techniques of collecting data, i.e. test, questionnaire, observation, interview and use of statistic in analyzing the data in order to reach on conclusions. Survey methods are broadly classified in the following three categories which share common features of carrying out their observation on lager size samples belong to defined population.
- The filed study: A field experiment may be defined as scientific investigation carried out in the field which involves direct manipulation of some independent variables. The field study is conducted in natural settings, i.e. classroom teaching learning and curriculum development.
- Developmental survey: Although developmental survey and developmental clinical study looks similar in method but differ in purpose. Clinical developmental method is concerned to an individual but developmental survey cover a large population to study the typical pattern of change in growth and development of behavior over a specific period of time span. Like developmental clinical methods, development survey may be longitudinal or cross sectional in nature. For example, we can say about the development of intelligence in culturally disadvantage of children from birth to 5 years using either longitudinal or cross sectional method.
- Differential survey: O'Neil refers two examples of differential survey which he said as those concerned with establishing typical difference between individual, and between classes of individual. The study conducted by Klinberg into difference in individual between racial and national groups in Europe come under differential survey.
Limitations of Survey Method
Survey method limitations lies under the followings:
- Sample error: Sometime sample are not true representative of the population. In case of biased sample result of the survey study is limited to that population and hinders the generalization over other population.
- Inadequate sample size: This is particularly true for survey. An ideal survey needs large sample size to generalize the result over other population. For example, sample size for mental ability test and personality test.
Suggested Reading
- Anthikad J. Psychology for Graduate Nurses, 4th edn. New Delhi, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd, 2008.
- Bhatia BD, Craig M. Elements of Psychology and Mental Health, 1st edn. Hyderabad, Orient Longman, 2006.
- Morgan CT, King RA, Weiz JR, et al. Introduction to Psychology, 7th edn. New Delhi. Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd, 2007.
- Plotnik R. Introduction to Psychology, 5th edn. USA, Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1999.
- Sreevani R. Textbook of Psychology. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd, 2008.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
SHORT-ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS
- Define psychology. Enlist the branches of psychology.
- Enlist various methods used in psychology. Discuss experimental method in detail.
- Discuss the importance of psychology in nursing.
- Explain the scope of psychology.
- Explain survey method in detail.
1. Who established the psychology lab in German University?
- Sigmund Freud
- BF Skinner
- Louis Pasture
- Wilhelm Wundt
2. Who is father of psychology?
- Ivan Pavlov
- Wilhelm Wundt
- JB Watson
3. ‘The study of the mind should focus on how it allows us to adapt to surrounding’. This statement is proposed by which psychologist?
- Kort Koffa
- Wilhelm Wundt
- BF Skinner
- William James
4. Which of the following perspective is known as third space of psychology?
- Psychoanalysis
- Behaviorism
- Cognitive psychology
- Humanism
5. First psychology laboratory established at:
- Leipzig, Germany
- Toronto, Canada
- Columbia, USA
- Italy
6. Superego is also known as:
- Self
- Ideal self
- Perfection
- Conscience
7. Which of the following is the most oldest method of psychology?
- Experimental method
- Survey method
- Introspection/subjective method
- Observational method
8. Who introduced the method of introspection?
- Watson
- Pavlov
- BF Skinner
- Wilhelm Wundt
9. Which of the following method will be used to find the relationship of one variable to another?
- Experimental method
- Survey method
- Case study
- Introspection
10. The literal meaning of word ‘psychology’ is:
- Study of behavior
- Study of mind
- Study of soul
- Study of appearance
11. Who developed Individual psychology?
- Freud
- Spearman
- GW Allport
- Alfred Adler
12. Psychology's major contribution in education lie in:
- Providing a scientific foundation for the art of teaching.
- Identifying potentially successful educational procedures.
- Comparing the relative effectiveness of various teaching procedures.
13. The behaviorists believed:
- Psychology should emphasize the study of healthy people.
- Psychology should only study observable and objectively described acts.
- Psychology should study the self examination of inner ideas and experiences.
- All of the above
ANSWER KEY
1. | d | 2. | b | 3. | b | 4. | d | 5. | a | 6. | d | 7. | c |
8. | d | 9. | a | 10. | c | 11. | d | 12. | d | 13. | b |