Applied Psychology for Nurses R Sreevani
INDEX
Page numbers followed by b refer to box, f refer to figure, fc refer to flowchart, and t refer to table
A
Ability 232, 269
Acceptance 77
Achievement test 227, 269
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome 217
Adaptability 232
principle of 115
Adaptation 206, 208, 240, 269
Adaptive coping styles 212t
Adler's individual psychology 86
Adrenal glands 26
Adrenal medulla 210
Adrenaline 196
Adrenocorticotropin hormone 210, 211
Agnosia 168
Alarm reaction 210, 211fc, 269
Albert Bandura's social learning theory 140f
Alcohol 145
All-or-none law 269
Allport's classification 85, 85t
Allport's theory 86
Altruism 269
Alzheimer's disease 145, 168
Amnesia 168, 269
Anaccurate perception, causes for 117, 117f
Anal stage 269
Anesthesia 166
Anger 76, 197, 203, 204
Antisocial personality disorder 103, 269
Anxiety 69, 187, 203, 269
Anxious personality disorder 103
Apathy 54
Applied psychology, branches of 7
Approach-approach conflict 55, 55f, 269
Approach-avoidance conflict 55, 55f, 269
Aptitude 161, 269
concepts 161
measurement of 163
nursing implications of 172
test 165, 227
types of 162, 163, 165
Army alpha test 227
Army general classification test 227
Arousal, levels of 192
Arthritis 207
Aspiration, levels of 189
Asthma 207
Attention 109, 140, 269
alterations in 113, 165
deficit hyperactive disorder 145, 165
degree of 112
determinants of 110, 110t
division of 113
duration of 112
major conditions of 112f
nursing implications of 169
span of 112
types of 109, 109fc
Attitude 213, 214, 269
development of 214
effects of 214, 218
formation of 214, 217
learning 126
measurement of 219
nature of 213
nursing implications of 217
psychometric assessment of 218, 219
role of 216
scales 219
towards treatment 216
Attribution 269
Auditory attention, span of 112
Auditory defects 38
Autocratic leadership 269
Autonomic nervous system, sympathetic division of 210
Autonomy 42, 261
Avoidance-avoidance conflict 55, 55f, 269
B
Background stressors 206
Balwadis 47
Bandura and Walter's social learning theory 86, 95
Bargaining 76
Basic social etiquette rules 249
Behavior 1, 10, 25, 214, 270
abnormal 269
analysis of 10
biology of 19
changes 101f
expressive 196
glandular controls of 26
harmful 208
instigator of 186
modification 270
observation of 9
pattern 280
verbal 280
withdrawn 100
Benzodiazepines 145
Biopsychology 6
Blood
pressure, high 145
vessels supplying blood 210
Bloom's taxonomy 156
revised 156
Bodily movement and gestures 196, 199
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence 120
Body-mind relationship 19, 20f
Borderline personality disorder 103
Brain 25, 32f, 116, 200, 243
functions 158
injury 20
left sides of 32f
lobes of 31f
major structures in 33f
rhythmic activity 219
right sides of 32f
structures 203
tumors 145
Bride burning 262
Brief psychiatric rating scale 227
Bruner's theory 124
Building time management skills 241
C
Cannon-Bard theory 200, 270
Cardiac muscle 26
strength of 210
Cardinal disposition 93
Catastrophic events 206
Catharsis 270
Central nervous system 29, 270
Cerebellum 270
Cerebral cortex 270
role of 95
Cerebrospinal fluid 33
Cerebrum 30, 270
Chemical 243
Child marriage 259, 262
Chromosomes 270
Classical conditioning theory, educational implications of 135
Clerical aptitude 162, 165
Clinical neuropsychology 6
Cognitive development 61, 270
across lifespan 65t
Piaget's four stages of 160f, 161t
Cognitive disorders 168
Cognitive processes 109
alterations in 165, 166f
psychometric assessment of 163
Cognitive social learning theory 270
Collaboration 48
Communication 233, 239, 254, 263, 271
components of 234
importance of 234
process 233f, 240
skills 233, 235
types of 233
Community
activities 258
based programs 48
living, training in 48
Compensation 52
Computer-assisted tests 226
Confidence, levels of 249
Conflict 55, 271
types of 55
Conformity 271
Consciousness 271
Context, principle of 115
Continuous distraction 113
Continuous reinforcement schedule 136, 271
Controlled thinking 154
Convergent thinking 271
Conversion 52
Coping 271
strategies
classification of 213
types of 212f
styles 212
Corticotropin releasing-hormone 210, 211
Counseling 271
COVID vaccine 67
Creative thinking 153, 155
stages of 155f
Criminology, field of 13
Crisis intervention 47
Critical thinking 153, 232
Cultural barriers 239, 239t
Curiosity 190
Curriculum planning 217
D
Day dreaming 156
Daytime activities 205
Decay theory 152
Deductive reasoning 154
Defense mechanism 50, 271
purpose of 51
types of 51
Delirium 168
Dementia 168
Dendrites 27, 271
Denial 51, 76, 203, 204
Dependent personality disorder 103
Depression 20, 77, 203, 204, 207
Hamilton rating scale for 227
Devadasi system 259
Diabetes 207
Differential aptitude test 165, 227
Direct aggression 54
Discontinuous distraction 113
Discrimination 261
Displacement 51, 271
Dissocial personality disorder 102
Dissociative amnesia 271
Distraction
sources of 113
types of 113
Dizziness 38
Dollard and Miller's learning theory 95, 95f
Double approach-avoidance conflict 272
Down syndrome 21, 272
Dowry 262
harassment 259
Dress code 266
Drive theories 191, 191f, 272
Duct glands 26
Ductless glands 26
Dynamic personality theories 86
Dyscalculia 167
E
Economic development 261
Education 261
Effective team work, advantages of 253
Ego 87f, 272
defense mechanisms 50
integrity 272
Eisenhower matrix 242f
Electrocardiogram 219
Electrocardiography 219
Electroencephalogram 219
Elimination pattern 205, 220
Emotion 128, 195, 204, 272
Cannon-Bard theory of 270
characteristics of 197
cognitive theory of 201
components of 196, 196f
development of 198
eliciting events 244
focused coping 212
handling 204, 205, 220
James-Lange theory of 275
psychometric assessment of 218, 219
rise of 150
Schachter-Singer theory of 278
theories of 200, 201f
types of 197, 197f
understand source of 204
Emotional awareness 204
Emotional development 198
Emotional disorders 199
Emotional equilibrium 203
Emotional reactions 199, 199f, 200f
Emotional stability 203
Empathy 232, 235, 272
Empowerment 272
Endocrine gland 26, 272
Environment, types of 23, 23f
Environmental barriers 238
Epinephrine 196
Etiquette, aspects of 265
Exercise, law of 131
Exhaustion stage 212
Experimental manipulation 272
Experimental method 10
essential features of 10
steps in 11fc
Experimentation, steps in 10
Explicit volitional attention 110
Extinction 134, 272
Extrasensory perception 273
Extrinsic motivation 252, 273
Eysenck's hierarchical theory 86
Eysenck's personality questionnaire 95
Eysenck's theory 94, 94f
F
Facial 196
expressions 199
Factors affecting perception 115, 116f
Factual disorders 37
Fantasy 54
Fatigue, physical 20
Fear 187, 190, 197, 203, 204
Feelings, facilitate verbalization of 205, 220
Female infanticide 262
Fertility 60
Figure-ground relationship 114f, 273
principle of 114
Fixation 273
Fixed-ratio reinforcement schedule 137
Flexibility 232
Fluid intelligence 273
Forebrain 29
Forgetfulness, general 150
Forgetting 150, 273
causes for 150, 150f
interference theory of 274
theories of 151
types of 150
Foster healthy attitude 48
Frame mental processes 9
Fraternal twins 273
Frequency, law of 131
Freud's theories 87
Frustration 53, 54, 54f, 273
causes for 54
characteristics of 53
sources of 54
Funnel approach 148
G
Galvanic skin response 219, 273
Gardner's multiple intelligence 119
Gastric glands 26
Gender
discrimination 262
equality 261
General adaptation syndrome 208, 210, 273
three-stage model of 210f
General aptitude test battery 165, 227
General intelligence theory 123
General memory functions, theory of 145
Genes 273
Genital stage 273
Geopsychology 7
Gestalt psychology 2, 138, 273
Gestalt therapy 273
Glands 26, 34
types of 26
Good nutritional quality food 206
Gordon Allport's
personality dispositions 93f
theory 92
Grief, stages of 77f
Group
intelligence tests 121
non-verbal intelligence tests 121
therapy 273
verbal intelligence tests 121
Growth 60
hormone-releasing hormone 210, 211
Gustatory disorders 37
H
Habits 129
branches of 129
characteristics of 129
force of 190
formation of 129
role of 130
Hair set up 266
Halfway homes 49
Hallucination 117
Hans Eysenck's theory 94
Happiness 197
Happy life, workplace rules for 248, 248b
Hard skills 231
concept of 231
Head injury 145
Health 261
and digital literacy 264
education 215
personnel, training of 47
Hearing 35, 38
Heart
problems 207
rate 200
Hemispheres
left 30
right 30
Hindbrain 32
Hippocrates classification 83, 83t
Histrionic personality disorder 103
Homeostasis 186, 274
Horizontal vertical illusion 167
Hormones 203, 274
discharge of 196
Horney's psychoanalytic interpersonal theory 86
Hostility 102
Human growth hormone 211
Humanistic approach theory 86, 88, 89
Humanistic psychology, development of 193f
Hunger motive 188
Hyperanesthesia 166
Hyperthymestic syndrome 168
Hypnosis 274
Hypothalamus 30, 203
Hypothesis, formation of 154
Hypothyroidism 145
I
Id 85f, 274
Illusions, types of 167
Incentive 187, 274
Incoming calls, types of 251
Individual intelligence tests 121
Information
processing theory 124, 146, 146f
technology tests 164
Insightful learning, theory of 138, 141
Insomnia, taking care of 205, 220
Integration 42, 129
Integrity 274
Intellectualization 52, 274
Intelligence 118, 145, 274
alterations in 168
classification of 119, 119f
concrete 119
crystallized 271
emotional 120, 272
factor theories of 123
Gardner's eight major kinds of 119, 120t
interpersonal 120
linguistic 120
measurement of 121
naturalist 120
nursing implications of 171
process-oriented theories of 124
quotient 119, 231, 274
social 119
spatial 120
tests 227, 274
classification of 121fc
limitations of 122
uses of 122
theories of 123
type of 120
uses of 120
Intensity 35
Intercellular environment 23, 24
Interest
and attention 111, 145
and attitudes 190
tests 227
Interference theory 151, 152, 152f, 274
International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 102
Interneurons 27
Interpersonal relationship 236, 238b
Interview method 96
Intrapsychic coping 213
Intrauterine environment 24
Intrinsic motivation 252, 275
Introspection method, steps in 8, 8f
Introvert 275
Involuntary attention 110
IQ
classification 120
range 120
Isolation 53, 110, 111
J
James-Lange theory 200, 201fc, 272, 275
Jung's analytical psychology 86
Jung's classification 83, 84t
K
Kidneys 26
Kinesthetic disorders 38
Kinesthetic sense 38
Kretschmer's classification 83, 84t
L
Lacrimal glands 26
Laissez-Faire leadership 275
Languages 158, 275
Lazarus theory 202, 202f
Learner's mental health 127
Learner's physical health 127
Learning 124, 143, 275
alterations in 167
concept 126
experience
nature of 128
type of 128
factors influencing 126, 127t
laws of 131
methodology of 128
nature of 125
nursing implications of 170
observational 140, 141, 276
paired-associate 126
problem-solving 126
process 128
situation 129
stimulus response 125
theories of 132, 141, 141t
trial and error theory of 132, 141
types of 125127
verbal 125
Libido 275
Likert scale 219
Limbic system 30, 95, 203, 275
part of 200
Listening skills 250
Loci, method of 149
Logical-mathematical intelligence 120
Long-term memory 143, 275
classification of 143fc
M
Magnification 159
Mahilamandals 47
Major endocrine glands, localization of 27f
Maladaptive coping styles 213t
Male sex glands 26
Manual aptitude 162, 165
Maslow's hierarchy of needs 92, 192, 194, 194f
Maslow's self-actualization theory 86
Mathematics disorders 167
Maturation 127, 275
Maturity 144
Mechanical aptitude 162, 165
Medicine, field of 13
Medulla 275
Memory 142, 275
alterations in 168
declarative 271
episodic 272
explicit 272
factor 124
influencing 144, 144t
images 116
involves input 144
long-term 143, 275
nature of 143
nursing implications of 170
peg system 149
semantic 279
sensory 142, 279
short-term 142, 279
stages of 142, 145f
theories of 145
three stage model of 143fc
trace 275
types of 142, 142fc
working 280
Menopause 60
Mental
conditions, effects of 20
coping skills 244
deficiency 122
filter 159
functions, localization of 32f
health 42, 151, 245, 248
agencies 49
care, sources of 221
concepts of 42, 43f
education 46
non-governmental organizations 49
professionals, seek help of 206, 221
services 48, 48f, 50
strategies 45t
hygiene 42, 43
concepts of 43, 43f
retardation 275
set-up 111
subnormality 122
Mentally healthy person, characteristics of 44
Midbrain 31, 275
Minimization 159
Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory 97, 275
Misconception 217
Mnemonic link system 148
Morbid forgetting 150
Motivation 141, 185, 187, 218, 276
arousal theory of 192, 192f
cognitive approaches of 270
concepts of 187
external 252
incentive theory of 192, 193f
instinct theory of 190
internal 252
level of 127
psychometric assessment of 218
pull theory of 192
push theory of 191
skills 252
theories of 190
types of 252
Motivational cycle 191, 192f, 276
Motives 111, 128, 194
nursing implications of 195
types of 187, 188f
Motor
learning 126
neurons 27, 276
reproduction 140
Multifactor theory 123
Multiple approach-avoidance conflict 55, 56f, 276
Muscles 26
Musical intelligence 120
Myelin sheath 27, 276
N
Nails 267
Narcissistic personality disorder 103
Naturalistic observation 276
Nausea 38
Neo-Freudian psychoanalysts 276
Nerve fiber 276
Nervous system 25, 29, 276
branch of 196
integrative function of 34
knowledge of 34
parts of 30fc
Neural impulse 28
Neural stimulus 276
Neurological tests 164t
Neuron 25, 27
structure of 27f
Neuropsychological tests 227
Neurotransmitters 28, 29f, 276
Neutral stimulus 134
Non-verbal communication 233
Noradrenaline 196
Norepinephrine 196
Nurse
positive attitude for 217, 218
role of 45t, 46, 47, 56, 65, 6772, 74, 78, 102, 229, 262, 264, 264b
time management for 242
Nutrition 205
inadequate 262
Nutritional deficiency 145
O
Observation method 9, 97
steps in 9, 9f
Obsessive compulsive personality disorder 103
Occupational tests 227
Oedipus conflict 276
Olfactory disorders 37
Operant conditioning theory, educational implications of 138
Opinion surveys 219
Organ system 207
Organization, Gestalt laws of 273
Otis-Lennon school ability test 121
Overgeneralization 159
Oxygen 210
P
Pain, severe 20
Pancreas 26
Paper-pencil and performance tests 227
Paranoid personality disorder 102
Parapsychology 7
Parasympathetic nervous system 203, 276
Parathyroid gland 26
Paresthesia 166, 277
Perception 113, 277
alterations in 166
nursing implications of 169
principle of 113, 114f
Perceptual learning, types of 126f
Peripheral nervous system 29, 33, 277
Personal interests and mind set 116
Personality 82, 277
abnormal 103
Allport's classification of 85t
alterations in 100, 102
assessment 96
balanced development of 44
behavioral theories of 86
characteristics of 82, 85t
classification of 83, 83f
development 92
Freud's stages of 88, 89t, 90f
theories of 86
disorder 102, 103, 277
classification of 102
Dollard and Miller's learning theory of 95, 95f
dynamics of 88
evaluation of 96
Eysenck's trait-type theory of 94f
Freud's structure of 88f
Hippocrates classification of 83t
inventory 97, 277, 219
Jung's classification of 84t
Kretschmer's classification of 84t
learning theories of 95
measurement of 96
questionnaire 97t
Sheldon's classification of 84t
tests 227
traits, measurement of 96f
trait-type theory of 86, 92, 94
type A 85
type B 85
Phallic stage 277
Phobias 277
Physical health 245
Piaget's theory 124
Pituitary gland 26, 277
Poor mental health, warning signs of 44, 45f
Posture 265
Practice relaxation and stress reducing techniques 246
Presentation skills 248, 249
Primacy, law of 131
Primary care provider 73
Proactive interference 152, 277
Processing theory, levels of 146, 147f
Professionalism 232
Projective personality test 277
Projective techniques 98, 98t, 219
Promotive and preventive mental health strategies 44
Proximity 277
principle of 114, 115f
Psychoanalysis 4
Psychoanalytic theory 86, 87, 277
founder of 87f
Psychological assessment 226, 229
Psychological barriers 239
Psychological forgetfulness 150
Psychological needs 67, 70, 71, 75
Psychological problem 145
Psychological tests 229
characteristics of 228, 228t
development of 227
interpretation of 229
limitations of 229
principle of 228
types of 226
uses of 228
Psychology 1, 2, 5, 34, 185, 277
abnormal 6
application of 13f, 15t
applied 7
branches of 6, 7fc, 15
caregivers 75
child 72
clinical 7, 16, 270
cognitive 6, 16, 270
community 271
counseling 6
criminal 16
cross-cultural 6
development of 2, 3f
developmental 7, 16, 60, 271
educational 7, 15
environmental 6
evolution of meaning of 1fc
evolutionary 6, 272
experimental 6, 7
forensic 6
general 6
health 6, 16, 273
humanistic 193f
industrial 7
law of 5
legal 8
major perspectives of 4, 4f
methods of 8, 8f
military 8
occupational 15
personality 6
physiological 6, 19
political 8
predicts human behavior 5
relationship of 12
school 6
scope of 5
significance of 13
social 6, 16, 279
sports 6, 16
subject 4, 5f
uses scientific methods 4
Psychosexual stages 277
Psychosocial development 61, 277
across lifespan 63t
Erikson's eight stages of 90t, 91f
theory of 88
Psychosocial environment 24
Psychosocial needs 186
Psychosocial theory 86
founder of 90f
Psychosomatic illness 278
Psychotherapy 278
Puberty 60
Public opinion polling 219
Pulse rate 200
Punishment 136, 278
types of 136t
Pure psychology, branches of 6
Q
Quarter way homes 49
R
Rationalization 52, 278
Raymond Cattell's theory 93, 94f
Reaction formation 51, 278
Readiness, law of 131
Reading disorders 167
Recall 143, 278
Recitation 148
Recognition 143, 278
Red blood cell 210
Reflex 278
Regression 52, 54, 278
Reinforcement 129, 136, 278
schedules of 136, 137, 137t, 278
types of 136t
Relationships, types of 236, 236f
Reliability 228
Remedies 207, 208
Repression 51, 278
theory 152
Resilience 245, 278
development of 246
Resistance reaction 210, 211fc
Respiratory motive 188
Retention 140, 143, 278
Reticular activating system 31, 95, 278
Retina 37
Retroactive interference 152
Retrograde amnesia 278
Roger's self-theory 86
Rogers Person-centered approach 92
Rorschach test 98, 99f, 278
S
Sadness 197
Salivary glands 26
Schachter-Singer theory 201, 202, 278
theoretical model of 202f
Schizoid personality disorder 102
Scientific method 278
Self-actualized individual, characteristics of 195b
Self-empowerment 258
development 259
phase of 259f
dimensions of 258
Self-esteem 194, 279
dissatisfaction of 194
satisfaction of 194
Self-help groups 49
Self-observation method 8
Self-perception theory 216
Self-report methods 97, 219
Semantic barriers 239
Sensation 34, 279
abnormal 36
alterations in 166
general characteristics of 35
normal 36
psychology of 25
Sense organs 25, 60, 115
defective functioning of 117
Sensorimotor 160
Sensory 34
disorders, types of 37f
experience 35fc
neurons 27
process 35
nursing implications of 38, 169
Sentence completion test 99
Sex
drive 188
glands 26
motive 188
Sexual health 60
Shame and guilt feelings 102
Sheldon's classification 83, 84t
Shock 203, 204
Sickness, emotion in 203
Situational tests 218, 219
Sixteen personality factor questionnaire 94
Skeletal muscles 26
Skills 279
types of 231
Skin 36, 207
Skinner's radical behaviorism 86
Smell 35, 37
Smooth muscles 26
Social barriers 239, 239t
Social etiquettes 249
importance of 250
Social learning theory 95f, 140
Social motives 189, 279
Society-centered preventive measures 47
Socio-psychological drive 187
Soft skills 231, 235, 279
application of 231, 232t
components of 232
concept of 231
use of 232
Somatoform disorder 279
Specific clinical tests 227
Spinal cord 33
Spontaneous non-volitional attention 110
Stanford-Binet intelligence scale 227
Stereotypes 54, 279
Stimulus 279
conditioned 134, 271
discrimination 279
generalization 135, 279
inadequate 117
intensity of 110
isolation of 110, 111
localization of 110, 111
movement of 110, 111
removal of 136
repetition of 110, 111
size of 110
unconditioned 134, 280
variability 279
Stress 206208, 212, 243, 279
concepts of 206
cycle 207, 207f
effects of 208, 209f
Stressors 206, 207
personal 206
Stretching 243
Structuralism 2, 279
Study habits 130
Sublimation 52, 279
Suicide prevention centers 50
Superego 87f, 279
Suppression 52, 279
Surprise 197
Survey method 12
Sweat glands 26
Symmetry, principle of 115, 115f
Sympathetic nervous system 203
Synapse 25, 28, 28f, 279
T
Tasks, achievement of 42
Taste 36, 37
Teamwork 232, 253
essential components of 253
importance of 254
Telephone etiquettes
importance of 252
techniques 251
Temporal lobes 280
Tetanus vaccine 67
Thalamus 29, 280
Thematic apperception test 98, 99f, 219, 280
Thinking 152, 280
alterations in 168
Bloom's levels of 157f
development of 159
levels of 156
nursing implications of 171
two main types of 153, 153f
types of 153, 153f
Thirst motive 188
Thyroid
gland 26, 280
stimulating hormone 211
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone 210, 211
Time management, benefits of 241b
Time scale error 159
Tissue deprivation, physiological state of 186
Touch 36
Trace decay theory 151
Trait theory 86, 280
Transactional analysis 280
Transduction 280
Transference 280
Trial and error theory, educational implications of 133
Trisomy 21 anomaly 21
Two-factor theory 123
U
Unconscious motives 190
V
Variable-interval reinforcement schedule 137
Verbal communication 233, 265
Vestibular disorders 38
Vestibular senses 38
Violence 261
domestic 259, 262
gender based 262
Vision 35, 37
Visual accommodation 269
Visual acuity 280
Visual attention, span of 112
Visual disorders 37
Vocational ambitions 189
Voice disturbances 199
Voluntary behavioral methods 220
W
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome 168
Whole and part method 147
Women empowerment 260
components of 261
dimensions of 260, 260f
in society 261
parameters of 261
Word association test 98
Written expression, disorders of 168
Y
Yoga 243
Z
Zygote 280
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Chapter Notes

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Introduction to PsychologyCHAPTER 1

CHAPTER OUTLINE
  • • Development of psychology
  • • Nature of subject psychology
  • • Scope of psychology
  • • Methods of psychology
  • • Relationship of psychology with other subjects
  • • Significance of psychology in nursing
  • • Applied psychology to solve everyday issues
Psychology is an offspring of subject philosophy. Psychology is derived from two Greek words, ‘psyche’ and ‘logos’. ‘Psyche’ means ‘mind, soul or spirit’ and ‘logos’ means the ‘study of’ or ‘knowledge’—study of soul. The word soul was used vaguely and there were many interpretations that could be given to it. Later on, William James used the term ‘mind’, which replaced ‘soul’. As years went by the meaning of psychology changed. Those who studied what was called ‘mind’ found that they could neither see it nor understand it. Seeing what it did meant they had to study the activities of human beings. The influence of physiology made some scientists like Wilhelm Wundt of Germany define psychology as the study of ‘consciousness’. However, this was also discarded in the course of time and the current definition of psychology as the systematic study of human and animal ‘behavior’ came to be accepted (Flowchart 1.1).
zoom view
Flowchart 1.1: Evolution of meaning of psychology
 
MEANING OF BEHAVIOR
‘Any manifestation of life is activity’ and behavior is a collective name for these activities. The term behavior includes the following:
  • Motor or conative activities (walking, swimming, dancing, etc.)
  • Cognitive activities (thinking, reasoning, imagining)
  • Affective activities (feeling happy, sad, angry, etc.)2
Behavior includes not only the conscious behavior and activities of the human mind but also the subconscious and unconscious. It covers both overt and covert behaviors involving all the inner experiences and mental processes.
In a nutshell the term behavior refers to the activities and experiences of a living organism over its life time.
 
DEFINITIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY
  • Psychology is the science of human and animal behavior. It includes the application of behavioral science to human problems.
  • Psychology is the science of human behavior.
—Walter Bowers Pillsbury (1911)
  • Psychology is a science which aims to give us better understanding and control of the behavior of the organism as a whole.
—William McDoughall (1949)
  • Psychology is the scientific study of activities of the individual in relation to his environment.
—Woodworm and Marquis
  • Psychology is the investigation of human and animal behavior and of the mental and physiological processes associated with the behavior.—Jackson (1976)
 
DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology as a separate area of study split away from philosophy a little over 100 years ago. The successes of the experimental method in the physical sciences encouraged some philosophers to think that mind and behavior could be studied with scientific methods. In 1879, the first psychological laboratory was established at the University of Leipzig by the German philosopher and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920). Wundt was the first to measure human behavior accurately and is known as the ‘Father of Psychology’. Major landmarks in the development of psychology are listed in Figure 1.1.
 
Schools of Psychology
William James, Wilhelm Wundt and other psychologists of the time thought of psychology as the study of mind. In the first decades of the twentieth century, psychologists came to hold quite different views about the nature of mind and the best way to study it. Schools of thought formed around these psychologists. These schools of thought are known as the schools of psychology.
 
Structuralism
This early school of psychology grew up around the ideas of Wilhelm Wundt in Germany and was established by one of Wundt's students, Edward B Titchener (1867–1927). The goal of the structuralist was to find the units or elements which make up the mind. The main method used to discover these elementary units of mind was introspection.
 
Gestalt Psychology
This school of psychology was founded in Germany around 1912 by Max Wertheimer (1880–1943) and his colleagues. These psychologists felt that structuralists were wrong in thinking of the mind as being made up of elements. They argued that mind could be thought of as resulting from the whole pattern of sensory activity and the relationships and organizations within this pattern.
 
Functionalism
Functionalists such as John Dewey (1873– 1954), James R Angell (1869–1949) and Harvey Carr (1873–1954) proposed that psychology should do ‘what mind and behavior do’. The functionalists performed experiments on the ways in which learning, memory, problem solving and motivation help people and animals adapt to their environments.
 
Behaviorism
This school of psychology originated with John B Watson (1879–1958). He insisted that psychology should be restricted to the study of the activities of people and animals—their behavior.3
zoom view
Figure 1.1: Major landmarks in the development of psychology
4
zoom view
Figure 1.2: Major perspectives of psychology
 
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud (1856–1938). He developed a theory of behavior and mind which said that much of what we do and think results from urges or drives which seek expression in behavior and thought. It is the expression of the unconscious drives which shows up in behavior and thought. The term unconscious motivation thus describes the key idea of psychoanalysis.
Except for the modern version of behaviorism and psychoanalysis the old schools of psychology are no more in existence.
 
Major Perspectives of Psychology
Psychology today is practiced as a blend of various methods. A modern-day psychologist leans towards using one of the methods more than the other but depends on all that has been developed in the past. Various viewpoints about what is important in understanding mental life and behavior characterize the present outlook. Among these perspectives are the behavioral, biological, cognitive, social, developmental, humanistic and psychoanalytic aspects (Figure 1.2).
Psychology is an independent subject and a positive science. Psychology is also a biosocial science. It has an important relationship with both biological and social sciences. It may be considered as a link between the two groups. Study of psychology is necessary in the field of medicine, nursing and other areas of human endeavor.
 
NATURE OF SUBJECT PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is the scientific study and practical application of observable behavior and mental processes of organisms. It is also the science of experience of an individual which is intimately connected with physiological processes, especially of the nervous system.
  • Psychology uses scientific methods: Almost all the methods of psychology are more or less scientific in their nature. Out of these the experimental method is the most scientific. Modern psychology widely uses this method in all its branches. In experimental method both dependent 5and independent variables are distinguished. While the dependent variables are controlled, the effect of independent variables is observed. Thus, in the experiment the psychologist observes a certain phenomenon in strictly controlled situations. The psychological laboratories are continuously developing and new and more exact instruments being constantly put to use. With these instruments psychologist observes the phenomenon, records, compares, classifies and discovers various principles through generalization.
  • Psychology is factual: Psychology studies facts of behavior by observation and experiments, not by values.
  • Laws of psychology are universal: The laws of psychology are found to be the same at all times and places under similar conditions.
  • Laws of psychology are verifiable: By verification and reverification psychological principles have been found to be true everywhere. They can be verified by any one.
  • Psychology discovers the cause-effect relationship in human behavior: Psychology not only observes behavior but also finds out cause-effect relationship in it. For example, psychology has discovered why and in what circumstances a child becomes a delinquent or a degenerate. These findings have been put to use and found to be correct. Thus psychology discovers the ‘how’ of behavior together with its ‘what’.
  • Psychology predicts human behavior: By discovering the cause-effect relationship psychologists are also able to accurately predict human behavior. In modern progressive countries appointments to various government posts are being made based on the predictions coming out of psychological tests.
From the above characteristics it can be deduced that the nature of psychology is scientific (Figure 1.3).
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Figure 1.3: Nature of subject psychology
 
SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
The scope of a subject can usually be discussed under the following two headings:
  1. Limits of its operations and applications.
  2. Branches, topics and subject matter with which it deals.
 
Limits of Operations and Applications
The field of operation and application of subject psychology is too vast.
  • It studies, describes and explains the behavior of living organisms.
  • It describes all types of life activities and experiences—whether conative, cognitive or affective, implicit or explicit, conscious, unconscious and subconscious of a living organism.
  • It studies not only human behavior but also human experience, language and other forms of communication. Psychologists are interested in individual differences which can either be genetically determined or occurring as a result of learning. They study how individuals and society interact and behave as members of small and large groups.
  • It is applicable to all the living creatures created by the almighty irrespective of their species, caste, color, age, sex, mental or physical state. Thus normal, abnormal, children, adolescents, youth, adults, elderly persons, criminals, patients, workers, officials, students, teachers, parents, consumers, etc., are all studied in subject psychology.
  • It also studies the behavior of animals, insects, birds and plant life.6
 
Branches of Psychology
No limit can be imposed upon the scope of subject psychology. It has many branches, fields and subfields (Table 1.1). For convenience, it may be broadly divided into pure and applied psychology (Flowchart 1.2). Pure psychology provides the framework and theory. It deals with the formulation of psychological principles and theories. It suggests various methods and techniques for the analysis, assessment, modification and improvement of behavior.
In applied psychology the theory generated through pure psychology finds its practical shape. Here ways and means of the application of psychological rules, principles, theories and techniques with reference to the real practical life situations are discussed.
 
Branches of Pure Psychology
  1. General psychology: General psychology deals with the fundamental rules, principles and theories of psychology in relation to the study of behavior of a normal adult.
  2. Abnormal psychology: Abnormal psychology deals with the behavior of individuals who are unusual. It studies mental disorders, their causes and treatment.
  3. Social psychology: Social psychology deals with the group behavior and interrelationships of people with others (how an individual is influenced by others and how an individual influences others behavior). It studies various types of group phenomena such as public opinion, attitudes, beliefs and crowd behavior. Social psychologists study the ways in which individuals are affected by other people.
  4. Physiological psychology: This branch of psychology describes and explains the biological and physiological basis of behavior. It concerns the structure and functions of sense organs, nervous system, muscles and glands underlying all behavior. It emphasizes on the influence of bodily factors on human behavior.
    Table 1.1   Major subfields of psychology
    Subfields
    Description
    Biopsychology
    Biopsychology examines how biological structures and functions of the body affect behavior
    Clinical neuropsychology
    Clinical neuropsychology unites the areas of biopsychology and clinical psychology, focusing on the relationship between biological factors and psychological disorders
    Cognitive psychology
    Cognitive psychology focuses on the study of higher mental processes
    Counseling psychology
    Counseling psychology focuses primarily on educational, social and career adjustment problems
    Cross-cultural psychology
    Cross-cultural psychology investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning and across various cultures and ethnic groups
    Environmental psychology
    Environmental psychology considers the relationship between people and their physical environment, how the physical environment affects emotions and the amount of stress experienced in a particular setting
    Evolutionary psychology
    Evolutionary psychology deals with the influence of genetic inheritance from ancestors on behavior
    Experimental psychology
    Experimental psychology studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning and thinking about the world
    Forensic psychology
    Forensic psychology focuses on legal issues and helps determine the root cause of criminal behavior. It evaluates criminals and attempts to understand their mindset and motives while the crime was being committed
    Health psychology
    Health psychology explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or diseases
    Personality psychology
    Personality psychology focuses on the consistency in people's behavior overtime and the traits that differentiate one person from another
    School psychology
    School psychology is devoted to counseling elementary and secondary school children with academic or emotional problems
    Sport psychology
    Sport psychology applies psychology to athletic activity and exercise
    7
    zoom view
    Flowchart 1.2: Branches of psychology
  5. Parapsychology: Parapsychology deals with extrasensory perceptions, causes of rebirth, telepathy and allied problems.
  6. Geopsychology: This branch of psychology describes and explains the relationship of physical environment particularly weather, climate and soil with behavior.
  7. Developmental psychology: This branch of psychology describes the processes and factors that influence growth and development in relation to the behavior of an individual from birth to old age. It is further subdivided into branches like child psychology, adolescent, adult and geriatric psychology. Development psychologists try to understand complex behaviors by studying their beginning and the orderly ways in which they change or develop over the life span.
  8. Experimental psychology: This branch of psychology studies the ways and means of carrying out psychological experiments using scientific methods. Experimental psychologists do basic research in an effort to discover and understand the fundamental and general causes of behavior. They study basic processes such as learning, memory, sensation, perception and motivation.
 
Branches of Applied Psychology
  1. Educational psychology: Educational psychology is that branch of applied psychology which tries to apply psychological principles, theories and techniques to human behavior in educational situations. The subject matter of this branch covers psychological ways and means of improving all aspects of the teaching/learning process. Educational psychologists are most often involved in the increase in efficiency of learning in schools by applying psychological knowledge related to learning and motivation.
  2. Clinical psychology: This is the largest subfield of psychology. This branch of applied psychology describes the causes of mental illness, abnormal behavior of a patient and suggests treatment and effective adjustment of the affected person in the society.
  3. Industrial psychology: This branch of applied psychology seeks the application of psychological principles, theories and techniques for the study of human behavior in relation to industrial environment. Industrial psychologists apply psychological principles to assist public and private organizations with their hiring and placement programs, training and supervision of personnel and improvement of communication within the organization. They also counsel employees within the organization who need help with their personal problems.8
  4. Legal psychology: Legal psychology is that branch of applied psychology which tries to study the behavior of persons like clients, criminals, witnesses, etc., with the help of application of psychological principles and techniques. The root cause of crime, offence, dispute or any legal case can be properly understood through the use of this branch of psychology.
  5. Military psychology: This branch of psychology is concerned with the use of psychological principles and techniques in military science. How to keep the morale of soldiers and citizens high during war time, how to secure recruitment of personnel with good leadership and fighting capacities, etc., are the various topics that are dealt within this branch of psychology.
  6. Political psychology: This branch of psychology relates itself with the use of psychological principles and techniques in studying politics and deriving political gains.
 
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is termed as the scientific study of human behavior. Special tools and procedures help us in gathering and organizing its subject matter and essential facts about behavior. These procedures termed as methods help in studying human behavior (Figure 1.4). They are as under:
 
1. Introspection or Self-observation Method
Introspection also known as self-observation method is one of the oldest methods of psychology which means ‘to look within’. It is defined as the process of directly examining one's own conscious mental states such as thoughts and feelings.
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Figure 1.4: Methods of psychology
As it is not possible to understand the inner feelings and experiences of other persons, the subject is asked to systematically observe his own behavior and report the same which is later analyzed to understand behavior. This characteristic of the introspection method is not available to other natural sciences.
 
Steps in Introspection Method
The steps involved introspection are presented in Figure 1.5.
  1. Look within: The psychologist encourages the individuals to look within and describe his thoughts, feelings and experiences.
  2. Begin to question: The individual begins to question the working of his own mind processes by trying to look within and recall what happened and how he is feeling.
    zoom view
    Figure 1.5: Steps in introspection method
    9
  3. Frame mental processes: The individual consolidates knowledge about his mental processes and reports. During this step the subject gets direct, immediate and intuitive knowledge about the mind.
  4. Analysis: The psychologist analyses and interprets information. This helps in advancement of scientific knowledge.
For example, a patient after an operation may be asked to report how he feels. The patient will try to look within and recall what happened and how he is presently feeling. The patient then reports his mental processes. This report will help in improving the treatment modality.
 
Merits
  • Introspection is a fundamental method of psychology. Observation and experimentation are based upon introspection.
  • Introspection gives us direct, immediate and exact knowledge of our own mental processes.
  • It enables us to fully understand the behavior of an individual.
  • This method does not require any apparatus or laboratory, is inexpensive and easy.
 
Demerits
  • This method is not applicable for children, animals or mentally retarded people as they lack introspection.
  • It is purely a private affair and cannot be verified by other observers.
  • In many cases the patients may not have the insight to know their condition or language to describe it accurately.
  • Introspection involves attention to a mental process. When we attend to the mental process we withdraw attention from the object and no sooner we do so the mental process vanishes making introspection impossible.
  • It is logically defective because one and the same person is the experimenter and observer. It is not possible for the same individual to act as an experimenter as well as an observer.
Difficulties in introspection can be overcome by habit and discipline of mind. It requires the power of abstraction and mental alertness.
 
2. Observational Method
Observation is the objective method of studying the behavior of individuals. It is defined as the systematic observation of an individual's behavior under natural or controlled condition, analyzed and interpreted by the observer.
It is essentially a way of perceiving the behavior as it is. In this method the observer observes and collects the data, analyzed and interpreted according to the perception of the observer. This method becomes more objective when it is done in a systematic way with a predetermined criterion.
 
Steps in Observation Method
Steps involved in observation method are presented in Figure 1.6.
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Figure 1.6: Steps in observation method
  1. Observation of behavior: The observer, observes the behavior in a natural setting or in a controlled environment. Here the behavior is perceived as it is.10
  2. Noting of behavior: It deals with recording the information/behavior according to the perception of the observer.
  3. Interpretation and analysis of behavior: Recorded information is analyzed objectively and scientifically to interpret the behavior patterns.
  4. Generalization: Based on analysis and interpretation it is possible to make certain generalizations.
For example, a researcher wants to observe the activities of nurses in an intensive care unit. He can use either direct or indirect observation technique using observational checklist to assess the activities of nurses. In another example, chronic ward nurse wants to use observational method to observe the behavioral problems of severely mentally ill individuals. The nurse can use direct observational checklist to assess the behavioral problems.
 
Merits
  • Economical, natural and flexible
  • Data can be analyzed, measured, classified and interpreted
  • The results can be verified and relied
  • Can be used on animals, children, mentally ill and unconscious patients
  • Observation method is quite suitable for observing developmental characteristics like children's habits and interests.
 
Demerits
  • Chances of subjective reporting and prejudices of observer creeping in are many.
  • Requires more time, energy and money.
  • It lacks repeatability as each natural situation may occur only once.
  • Not being able to establish a proper causeand-effect relationship.
  • Problems of the past cannot be studied.
Difficulties in observation method are overcome by cultivating an impartial attitude of mind by constructive imagination and cautious observation.
 
3. Experimental Method
Experimental method is considered as the most scientific and objective method of studying behavior. The word experiment comes from a Latin word meaning ‘to try’, ‘put to test’. Therefore, in experimentation we try or put to test the material or phenomenon, the characteristics of consequences of which we wish to ascertain. The use of this method has raised psychology to the status of an experimental science like physics, chemistry and physiology.
Experimental method studies the cause and effect relationship between the variables of human behavior such as effect of anxiety on intake of alcohol. To study the cause and effect relationship, psychologists use objective observations under controlled conditions to observe actions or behaviors of individuals. From these observations certain conclusions are drawn and theories or principles established.
 
Essential Features of Experimental Method
  • Requires two persons, the experimenter and the subject (the person whose behavior is being observed).
  • Experiments are conducted on living organisms.
  • All experiments are conducted under controlled conditions.
 
Steps in Experimentation
  • Stating the problem: The first step in an experiment is stating the problem. For example, to study the effects of deep breathing exercise on reducing anxiety among students.
  • Formulating the hypothesis: Hypothesis is a tentative answer to the problem which will be put to test. In the above example the hypothesis can be—‘Students who will undergo deep breathing exercise will have less anxiety compared to students who have not undergone deep breathing exercises’.
  • Identifying study subjects: Subjects are selected based on the problem. In the above example, students form the study subjects. After finalizing the subjects, the 11researcher identifies the dependent and independent variables. The independent variable stands for the cause and the dependent variable is characterized as the effect of the cause. In the above example ‘anxiety’ is the dependent variable while deep breathing is the independent variable.
  • Allotting subjects to experimental (treatment) and control groups: Generally, the subjects in the experiment are divided among two groups, one control and the other experimental. In this step, the researcher allots students to experimental and control group. Experimental group students will undergo deep breathing exercise program while the control group students will not receive any intervention.
  • Measuring the dependent variable: In a controlled environment the variables are observed and measured objectively. In the above example, anxiety of students among both the groups is measured. While experimenting, it is important that only the specified independent variables be allowed to change. Factors other than the independent variable must be held constant.
  • Comparing the results of two groups: The dependent variables of experiment and control group subjects are compared statistically. For example, experimental and control group students’ anxiety scores can be compared. Based on the results the hypothesis may be proved or disproved. The various steps involved in experimental method are depicted in Flowchart 1.3.
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Flowchart 1.3: Steps in experimental method
 
Merits
  • Scientific method
  • Establishes cause and effect relationship
  • Maximum control of phenomena
  • Repetition is possible
 
Demerits
  • All problems in psychology cannot be studied by this method as some of them may not be subject to experimentation.
  • Experimental method is a costly and time consuming method. Moreover, handling of this method demands specialized knowledge and skill. In the absence of such expertise this method is not functional.
  • Experimental method fails to study behavior in naturalistic conditions.
  • 12It cannot always be used especially if the experiment might be dangerous to the subjects.
In spite of various limitations it is a fact that the results obtained by experimental method are reliable, verifiable, definite, precise and capable of quantitative treatment compared to those obtained by other methods.
 
4. Clinical or Case History Method
This method is used by clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, psychiatric social workers in child guidance clinics or mental hygiene clinics and allied institutions. It aims at studying the cause and basis of people's anxieties, fears and personal maladjustments. A great deal of relevant data is collected using case histories, interviews, home visits and psychological tests to draw valid inferences about the nature of individual's difficulties and problems, the probable origin and course of development. This may suggest some course of action to be pursued in helping the individual.
In this technique, information is collected from the memory of the individual, his parents, family members, friends, teachers and all other available records and reports. Information thus collected includes past history of the disease, treatment already taken, changes if any like improvement, present condition, probable causes, signs and symptoms, etc.
 
Merits
  • Case histories will give the clinician an insight into the causes of the problem and suggest possible solutions.
  • Case studies can be productive sources of ideas for further investigation by other methods.
 
Demerits
The case history method depends largely on memory of incidents which may have been observed inaccurately or over interpreted.
 
5. Survey Method
All problems in psychology cannot be studied by experimental and other methods. Some problems like study of opinions, attitudes, healthcare needs, etc., need to be studied by means of survey method. This is commonly employed in social psychology.
Survey method involves collection or gathering of information from a large number of people using questionnaires, inventories, checklists, rating scales and interviews.
 
Merits
A large amount of data can be collected in a short period of time.
 
Demerits
Behavior is not observed directly.
 
6. Genetic or Developmental Method
Psychologists study not only the behavior of an individual at a particular time but also his development from birth to death, the influence of heredity and environment in the development of the person and conditions favorable and unfavorable for normal and abnormal behavior. For example, to understand the learning behavior of an adult, the study will have to begin from his childhood. This can be done in two ways:
  1. Cross-sectional study wherein children of different age groups will be studied simultaneously.
  2. Longitudinal study wherein the same child will be studied during various stages of his life.
 
Merits
This is a more useful method to understand the behavior from point of view of hereditary and environmental influences.
 
Demerits
This method requires more time and energy.
 
RELATIONSHIP OF PSYCHOLOGY WITH OTHER SUBJECTS
Psychology is a science of behavior which studies the factors determining human behavior extensively. It is linked to many other disciplines so as to understand the comprehensive nature of human behavior. The relationship of psychology with other subjects is described below:13
 
In the Field of Education
Theories of learning, motivation and personality, etc., have been responsible for shaping and designing the educational system according to the needs and requirements of the students. Application of psychology in the field of education has helped the learners to learn, teachers to teach, administrators to administer and educational planners to plan effectively and efficiently.
 
In the Field of Medicine
A doctor, nurse or any person who attends to the patient needs to know the science of behavior for achieving good results. Psychology has contributed valuable therapeutic measures like behavior therapy, play therapy, group therapy, psychoanalysis, etc., for the diagnosis and cure of patients suffering from psychosomatic as well as mental diseases.
 
In the Field of Business and Industry
It has highlighted the importance of knowledge of consumer's psychology and harmonious interpersonal relationship in the field of commerce and industry.
 
In the Field of Criminology
It has helped in detection of crimes and in dealing with criminals.
 
In the Field of Politics
It has aided leaders and politicians in acquiring leadership qualities for leading the masses.
 
In the Field of Guidance and Counseling
It has provided valuable help in relation to guidance and counseling in educational, personal as well as vocational areas.
 
In the Field of Military Science
Psychology helps in the selection, training, promotion and classification of defence personnel. In fighting the enemy, the morale of the defence personnel and of citizens must at all costs be high which can only be achieved by providing suggestions, insight and confidence.
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Figure 1.7: Application of psychology in various fields
 
In the Field of Human Relationship and Self-development
Finally, it has helped human beings to learn the art of understanding their own behavior, seeking adjustment with their self and others and enhancing as well as actualizing their potentialities to the utmost possible (Figure 1.7).
 
SIGNIFICANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN NURSING
While psychology and its applications have become more relevant and respected than any period in the past, they have become an imminent part of every profession including nursing today. This is because of increasing emphasis being laid out on the interplay of body, mind and spirit in the health status of every individual.
The success in life of many people depends on how they get along with others, influence others and react to others. The ability to understand ourselves and others comes from a wise study of psychology. The learning of psychology helps a nurse in the following ways (Figure 1.8):
 
Understand Her Own Self
The knowledge of psychology allows the nurse to get an insight into her own motives, desires, emotions, feelings, attitudes, personality characteristics and ambitions. She realizes that her personality is highly individualistic and complex, and is able to solve her own problems while becoming capable of arriving at major decisions in life. This knowledge also helps her to realize own strengths and weaknesses. By knowing these aspects she can overcome weaknesses that affect her work, develop good personality characteristics, abilities to carry on her responsibilities and perform duties effectively and efficiently. This permits her to direct her own life more productively and relate more easily with others enabling greater control over situations while attaining self-discipline.14
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Figure 1.8: Relevance of psychology to nursing
 
Understand Patients
Nurses are professionals meant for providing care to patients. The patient may be male or female, young or old suffering from an acute or a chronic disease and may have come to the hospital with physical or psychological problems. They may also have tensions, worries, pains and many doubts about their illness. The knowledge of psychology will help the nurse to understand the needs and problems of patients and attend to them. She can better understand motives, attitudes, perceptions and personality characteristics of patients. This will help the patient attain quick relief and cure which is the basic motto of a nurse.
 
Recognize Abnormal Behavior
Psychology is relevant not only in the field of physical health care but also in the field of mental health. Presently more and more people are suffering from mental illnesses. While many of them may be minor in nature some are diagnosed as severe. The knowledge of psychology will help nurses to understand abnormal behaviors and management of mental illnesses. Nurses working in mental hospitals undoubtedly require an adequate knowledge of normal and abnormal psychology.
The knowledge of psychology helps the nurses to recognize mental illnesses at general hospitals and community health centers while providing appropriate guidance to deal with stress, anxiety and other life related problems.
 
Understand Other People
The student nurse has to study, work and live with other nurses, doctors, patients and their family members. With scientific knowledge on human nature she will understand them better and be more successful in interpersonal relationships. She will learn why others differ from her in their likes and dislikes, interests and abilities and in reactions to others. She will realize how differences in behavior are to a certain extent a result of differences in customs and beliefs or cultural patterns of the groups to which she belongs or the way she has been brought up during her early years.
 
Provide Quality Care to Patients
A nurse with good knowledge of human psychology can understand the feelings of her patients, their fears and anxieties, what they would like to know and why they behave the way they do.
It will help the nurse to anticipate and meet the requirements of patients and their relatives enabling them to adjust to the unavoidable circumstances in the best possible way. A good understanding by the nurse can lend the patients much necessary support.15
 
Help Patients Adjust to the Situation
Illness and physical handicaps often bring about the need for major adjustments. Many diseases such as heart disease and cancer, etc., require special coping skills and health care. A nurse trained in psychology can be an effective health educator and help in these kind of adjustments.
 
Help the Student Nurse to Appreciate the Necessity for Changing the Environment or Surroundings
Good nursing care depends upon the ability of a nurse to understand the situations properly and seek the co-operation of other people concerned. The change in environment is sometimes necessary for better adjustment and happiness. For example, a boy who is completely denied the affectionate care of his parents may do better if he is given the care of foster parents.
 
Help for Effective Studying
A nurse has to learn many new concepts during her training. She has to obtain the correct knowledge of various facts, disease conditions and their treatment. The study of psychology of learning will help the nurse acquire knowledge in an effective way.
 
Readjustment
Every profession and career requires readjustment. A nurse needs to make the following adjustments for achieving success in her career:
  1. Overcoming homesickness and self-reliance are necessary if she has to live hassle free in a hostel or a hospital.
  2. Getting used to sick persons who are helpless and desperate and even those who may ventilate their anger by making the nurse a target of their abuses and curses.
  3. Try to study and work together.
Knowledge of psychology can be helpful in such efforts as an insight into their emotions will resolve lot of disputes and dilemmas. The wellbeing of a patient is the prime responsibility of a nurse. She must not only treat him physically but also instill confidence in his capacity to improve and recover fully. For this, knowledge of human psychology is essential. The physical and mental wellbeing of a patient mainly depends on the nurse. She has to deal with different people having different problems both physical and mental. To serve them satisfactorily, knowledge of psychology is very essential.
 
APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY TO SOLVE EVERYDAY ISSUES
Applied psychology is the application of psychological principles and methods to resolve problems of human experience which may be related to health, family, workplace, etc. It is that field of psychology which validates psychological theories and focuses on putting practical research into action to achieve the desired results. The relevance of applied psychology in various walks of life is presented in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2   Application of psychology to solve everyday issues
Branch of psychology
Application to solve everyday issues
Educational psychology
  • Helps in developing strategies for better teaching approaches
  • Improves learning environment and gives advice on curriculum formulation
  • Addresses the needs of students with different abilities and relieves their examination stress
Occupational psychology
  • Helps in increasing employee productivity, job satisfaction at work and overall effectiveness of an organization
  • Aids in organizational functions such as staff recruitment, training, employee relations, performance appraisal, motivation, counseling and maintaining work environment16
Health psychology
  • Helps diseased individuals to cope with illness, develop positive attitude, recover from illness and lead quality life
  • Educates and motivates people to make better health choices, contribute to improving the healthcare system and aid the government in designing healthcare policy
Cognitive psychology
  • Aids in treating learning disorders, structure the educational curricula to augment learning, and improve decision making ability
  • Provides help to cope with increased stress levels, memory disorders, brain injury and attentional difficulties
Clinical psychology
  • Helps in diagnoses, prevention and treatment of emotional disturbances and behavioral problems
  • Helps the individual to promote wellbeing and personal development
Sports psychology
  • Helps athletes and sports persons to cope with the intense pressure generated out of competition
  • Enhances the performance of an athlete, motivates him and hastens the recovery from injuries too
  • Teaches the common man to enjoy sport and promote wellbeing by sticking to an exercise regimen
Developmental psychology
  • Aims to resolve individual's issues mostly related to society, school, career, family and health
Criminal psychology
  • Assists the law enforcement agencies in apprehending criminals
  • Provides an understanding of will, intention, thoughts, feelings and reactions of criminals with the main goal of reducing crime
Social psychology
  • Talks about social perceptions and interactions that are key to understanding social behavior
  • Looks at a wide range of other topics such as leadership, aggression, prejudice, non-verbal behavior
  • Deals with problems related to social justice, women development, intergroup relations, etc.
Review Questions
 
Long Essays
  1. Define psychology. Explain methods of observation and case study.
  2. Define psychology and explain its nature and scope with special reference to nursing.
  3. Critically examine observation method and experimental method.
  4. Define psychology. What are the different methods used in the study of psychology? Critically evaluate them.
 
Short Essays
  1. Explain any two branches of psychology.
  2. Explain nature of psychology.
  3. Describe merits and demerits of experimental method.
  4. Explain case study method.
  5. Explain the relevance of psychology to nursing.
  6. Explain experimental method in psychology.
  7. Bring out the similarities and differences between introspection and observation.
  8. What is the general importance of psychology? Why should a student nurse study psychology?
  9. Scope of psychology.
  10. Define introspection method—list the advantages and disadvantages.
 
Short Notes
  1. Write any two definitions of psychology
  2. Child psychology
  3. Methods of psychology
  4. Define any two branches of psychology
  5. Case history method
  6. List the branches of psychology
  7. Behavior
  8. Interview method
  9. Experimental method
  10. Introspection
  11. Observation method
 
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Psychology is defined as the scientific study of:
  1. Mental disorders
  2. Mental processes
  3. Human relationships
  4. Human and animal behavior
2. Which of the following deals with the study of how a person's actions, feelings or thoughts are influenced by others?
  1. Social psychology
  2. Clinical psychology
  3. Educational psychology
  4. Health psychology
3. What is general psychology?
  1. That which deals with fundamental rules and principles of psychology
  2. That which deals with general behavior of people
  3. That which deals with general activities of an organism
  4. That which deals with normal behavior of a person
4. Behavior includes which of the following ‘activities’?
  1. Motor
  2. Cognitive
  3. Affective
  4. All of the above
5. Who is the Father of Psychology?
  1. Sigmund Freud
  2. William James
  3. Ivan Pavlov
  4. Wilhelm Wundt
6. Understanding subject psychology is important for a nurse because:
  1. It helps the nurse to understand herself
  2. It helps the nurse to understand others18
  3. It helps the nurse to improve situations by solving problems
  4. All of the above
7. Which of the following is a scientific method of psychology?
  1. Introspection method
  2. Observation method
  3. Experimental method
  4. Interview method
8. What is introspection?
  1. Self-motivation
  2. Self-observation
  3. Self-interest
  4. Self-learning
9. First step of the scientific method involves:
  1. Replication of procedures
  2. Formulating an explanation
  3. Carrying out research
  4. Identifying questions of interest
10. The purpose of control group in an experiment is to:
  1. Give a comparison that allows the independent variable to be judged
  2. Prevent the researcher from cheating
  3. Accommodate the extra participants
  4. Assist in the design of research project
11. Scientists who are most likely to study the relationship between stress levels and an individual's likelihood of contracting a disease are psychologists.
  1. Counseling
  2. Health
  3. Cognitive
  4. Developmental
12. Mental experiences operate on different levels of awareness. The level that best portrays one's attitudes, feelings and desires is the:
  1. Conscious
  2. Unconscious
  3. Preconscious
  4. Foreconscious
13. Wundt described psychology as the study of conscious experience, a perspective he called _______.
14. Early psychologists’ studied the mind by asking people to describe what they were experiencing when exposed to various stimuli. This procedure is known as _____.
15. The statement, ‘In order to study human behavior, we must consider the whole of perception rather than its component parts’ might be made by a person subscribing to the perspective_____.
16. Which perspective suggests that abnormal behavior is largely the result of unconscious forces?
17. ‘Psychologists should worry only about behavior, i.e. directly observable.’ This statement would most likely be made by a person using which psychological perspective?
18. The group in an experiment that receives no treatment is called the group_________.
19. ______ psychology describes the relationship of physical environment with behavior.
20. _____ psychology explains physiological basis of behavior.
ANSWER KEY
1. d
2. a
3. a
4. d
5. d
6. d
7. c
8. b
9. d
10. a
11. b
12. b
13. Structuralism
14. Introspection
15. Gestalt
16. Psychodynamic
17. Behavioral
18. Control
19. Geo
20. Physiological