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Essential Pathology for Dental Students
Harsh Mohan, Sugandha Mohan
SECTION I: THE CELL IN HEALTH AND DISEASE
1:
Introduction to Pathology
STUDY OF PATHOLOGY
HEALTH AND DISEASE
COMMON TERMS IN PATHOLOGY
EVOLUTION OF PATHOLOGY
PREHISTORIC TIMES TO MEDIEVAL PERIOD
HUMAN ANATOMY AND ERA OF GROSS PATHOLOGY
ERA OF TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT AND CELLULAR PATHOLOGY
MODERN PATHOLOGY
TELEPATHOLOGY
SUBDIVISIONS OF PATHOLOGY
MORPHOLOGICAL BRANCHES
NON-MORPHOLOGICAL BRANCHES
2:
Cell Structure and Function, Cellular Ageing
NORMAL CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
CELL STRUCTURE
Cell Membrane
Nucleus
Cytosol and Organelles
INTERCELLULAR COMMUNICATIONS
INTERCELLULAR JUNCTIONS
MOLECULAR INTERACTIONS BET WEEN CELLS
STRESS PROTEINS (HEAT SHOCK PROTEINS AND UBIQUITIN)
CELL CYCLE
CELLULAR AGEING
THEORIES OF AGEING
ORGAN CHANGES IN AGEING
3:
Cellular Adaptations
ATROPHY
HYPERTROPHY
HYPERPLASIA
METAPLASIA
DYSPLASIA
4:
Cell Injury: Etiology and Pathogenesis
ETIOLOGY OF CELL INJURY
PATHOGENESIS OF CELL INJURY
PATHOGENESIS OF ISCHAEMIC AND HYPOXIC INJURY
ISCHAEMIA-REPERFUSION INJURY AND FREE RADICAL-MEDIATED CELL INJURY
PATHOGENESIS OF CHEMICAL INJURY
PATHOGENESIS OF PHYSICAL INJURY
5:
Morphology of Cell Injury: Degenerations and Cell Death
MORPHOLOGY OF REVERSIBLE CELL INJURY
HYDROPIC CHANGE
HYALINE CHANGE
MUCOID CHANGE
MORPHOLOGY OF IRREVERSIBLE CELL INJURY (CELL DEATH)
NECROSIS
APOPTOSIS
OTHER FORMS OF PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH
CHANGES AFTER CELL DEATH
GANGRENE
Dry Gangrene
Wet Gangrene
PATHOLOGIC CALCIFICATION
Etiopathogenesis
6:
Intracellular Accumulations
EXCESSIVE INTRACELLULAR ACCUMULATION OF NORMAL CONSTITUENTS
FATTY CHANGE (STEATOSIS)
Fatty Liver
Cholesterol Deposits
Stromal Fatty Infiltration
INTRACELLULAR ACCUMULATION OF PROTEINS
INTRACELLULAR ACCUMULATION OF GLYCOGEN
PIGMENTS
A. ENDOGENOUS PIGMENTS
Melanin
Melanin-like Pigments
Haemoprotein-derived Pigments
Lipofuscin (Wear and Tear Pigment)
B. EXOGENOUS PIGMENTS
Inhaled Pigments
Ingested Pigments
Injected Pigments (Tattooing)
7:
Amyloidosis
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL NATURE OF AMYLOID
I. FIBRIL PROTEINS
II. NON-FIBRILLAR COMPONENTS
PATHOGENESIS OF AMYLOIDOSIS
DEPOSITION OF AL AMYLOID
DEPOSITION OF AA AMYLOID
CLASSIFICATION OF AMYLOIDOSIS
A. SYSTEMIC AMYLOIDOSIS
1. Primary Systemic (AL) Amyloidosis
2. Secondary/Reactive (AA) Systemic Amyloidosis
3. Haemodialysis-Associated (Aβ2M) Amyloidosis
4. Heredofamilial Amyloidosis
B. LOCALISED AMYLOIDOSIS
STAINING CHARACTERISTICS OF AMYLOID
MORPHOLOGIC FEATURES OF AMYLOIDOSIS OF ORGANS
AMYLOIDOSIS OF KIDNEYS
AMYLOIDOSIS OF SPLEEN
AMYLOIDOSIS OF LIVER
AMYLOIDOSIS OF HEART
AMYLOIDOSIS OF ALIMENTARY TRACT
OTHER ORGANS
DIAGNOSIS AND PROGNOSIS
DIAGNOSIS
PROGNOSIS
8:
Genetic and Paediatric Diseases
GENETIC DISEASES
DEVELOPMENTAL DEFECTS
Pathogenesis
Classification
Examples of Developmental Defects
CYTOGENETIC (KARYOTYPIC) ABNORMALITIES
Numerical Abnormalities
Structural Abnormalities
SINGLE-GENE DEFECTS (MENDELIAN DISORDERS)
MULTIFACTORIAL INHERITANCE
STORAGE DISEASES (INBORN ERRORS OF METABOLISM)
Glycogen Storage Diseases (Glycogenoses)
Mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS)
Gaucher’s Disease
Niemann-Pick Disease
OTHER PAEDIATRIC DISEASES
TUMOURS OF INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
Benign Tumours and Tumour-like Conditions
Malignant Tumours
9:
Environmental, Nutritional and Vitamin Deficiency Disorders
ENVIRONMENTAL DISEASES
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Air Pollution
Environmental Chemicals
Tobacco Smoking
CHEMICAL AND DRUG INJURY
THERAPEUTIC (IATROGENIC) DRUG INJURY
NON-THERAPEUTIC TOXIC AGENTS
Alcoholism
Lead Poisoning
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Drug Abuse
INJURY BY PHYSICAL AGENTS
THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL INJURY
INJURY BY RADIATION
NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT
Pathogenesis of Deficiency Diseases
OBESITY
STARVATION
PROTEIN-ENERGY MALNUTRITION
METALS AND TRACE ELEMENTS
DISORDERS OF VITAMINS
FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Vitamin E (α-Tocopherol)
WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
CHOLINE
FLAVONOIDS
DIET AND CANCER
SECTION II: INFLAMMATION AND HEALING, IMMUNITY AND HYPERSENSITIVITY, INFECTIONS AND INFESTATIONS
10:
Inflammation: Acute
INFLAMMATION—INTRODUCTION
ACUTE INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
I. VASCULAR EVENTS
Haemodynamic Changes
II. CELLULAR EVENTS
Exudation of Leucocytes
Phagocytosis
1. RECOGNITION AND ATTACHMENT
2. ENGULFMENT
3. KILLING AND DEGRADATION
MEDIATORS OF INFLAMMATION
I. CELL-DERIVED MEDIATORS
II. PLASMA PROTEIN-DERIVED MEDIATORS (PLASMA PROTEASES)
REGULATION OF INFLAMMATION
THE INFLAMMATORY CELLS
POLYMORPHONUCLEAR NEUTROPHILS (PMNs)
EOSINOPHILS
BASOPHILS AND MAST CELLS
LYMPHOCYTES
PLASMA CELLS
MONONUCLEAR-PHAGOCYTE SYSTEM (RETICULOENDOTHELIAL SYSTEM)
GIANT CELLS
ACUTE INFLAMMATION—FACTORS, MORPHOLOGY, EFFECTS, FATE
FACTORS DETERMINING VARIATION IN INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
Factors Involving the Organisms
Factors Involving the Host
MORPHOLOGY OF ACUTE INFLAMMATION
APPENDICITIS
ULCER
SUPPURATION (ABSCESS FORMATION)
SYSTEMIC EFFECTS OF ACUTE INFLAMMATION
FATE OF ACUTE INFLAMMATION
11:
Inflammation: Chronic and Granulomatous
CHRONIC INFLAMMATION
GENERAL FEATURES OF CHRONIC INFLAMMATION
SYSTEMIC EFFECTS OF CHRONIC INFLAMMATION
TYPES OF CHRONIC INFLAMMATION
GRANULOMATOUS INFLAMMATION
EXAMPLES OF GRANULOMATOUS INFLAMMATION
TUBERCULOSIS
TYPES OF TUBERCULOSIS
LEPROSY
Causative Organism
Incidence
Mode of Transmission
Immunology of Leprosy
Classification
Histopathology of Leprosy
Clinical Features
SYPHILIS
Causative Organism
Incidence
Immunology
Mode of Transmission
Stages of Acquired Syphilis
ACTINOMYCOSIS
SARCOIDOSIS (BOECK’S SARCOID)
12:
Healing of Tissues
REGENERATION AND REPAIR
REGENERATION
REPAIR
Granulation Tissue Formation
HEALING OF SKIN WOUNDS
HEALING BY FIRST INTENTION (PRIMARY UNION)
HEALING BY SECOND INTENTION (SECONDARY UNION)
COMPLICATIONS OF WOUND HEALING
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX—WOUND CONTRACTION AND STRENGTH
FACTORS INFLUENCING HEALING
HEALING IN SPECIALISED TISSUES
FRACTURE HEALING
Complications of Fracture Healing
HEALING OF NERVOUS TISSUE
HEALING OF MUSCLE
HEALING OF MUCOSAL SURFACES
HEALING OF SOLID EPITHELIAL ORGANS
STEM CELL CONCEPT OF HEALING—REGENERATIVE MEDICINE
13:
Infectious and Parasitic Diseases
INTRODUCTION
Chain in Transmission of Infectious Diseases
Factors Relating to Infectious Agents
Factors Relating to Host
Methods of Identification
DISEASES CAUSED BY BACTERIA, SPIROCHAETES AND MYCOBACTERIA
ENTERIC FEVER (TYPHOID FEVER)
SHIGELLOSIS (BACILLARY DYSETENRY)
PNEUMONIAS
Bacterial Pneumonia
WHOOPING COUGH (PERTUSSIS)
CAT-SCRATCH DISEASE
STAPHYLOCOCCAL INFECTIONS
STREPTOCOCCAL INFECTIONS
CLOSTRIDIAL DISEASES
DISEASES CAUSED BY FUNGI
FUNGAL INFECTIONS OF LUNG (FUNGAL PNEUMONIAS)
Pneumocystis Pneumonia
Other Fungal Infections of Lung
MYCETOMA
CANDIDIASIS
RHINOSPORIDIOSIS NOSE
CUTANEOUS SUPERFICIAL MYCOSIS
DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUSES
VIRAL HAEMORRHAGIC FEVERS
Yellow Fever
Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever (DHF)
Chikungunya Virus Infection
INFLUENZA VIRUS INFECTIONS
Bird Flu ((Influenza A/H5N1)
Swine Flu (Influenza A/H1N1)
VARICELLA ZOSTER VIRUS INFECTION
HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS INFECTION
RABIES
DISEASES CAUSED BY PARASITES
AMOEBIASIS
MALARIA
FILARIASIS
CYSTICERCOSIS
HYDATID DISEASE (ECHINOCOCCOSIS)
TORCH COMPLEX
14:
Diseases of Immunity including AIDS
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
ORGANS AND CELLS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM
CELLS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM
Lymphocytes
CYTOKINES
HLA SYSTEM AND MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX
TRANSPLANT REJECTION
MECHANISMS OF GRAFT REJECTION
TYPES OF REJECTION REACTIONS
DISEASES OF IMMUNITY
IMMUNODEFICIENCY DISEASES
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS (IMMUNOLOGICTISSUE INJURY)
Type I: Anaphylactic (Atopic) Reaction
Type II: Antibody-mediated (Cytotoxic) Reaction
Type III: Immune Complex Mediated (Arthus) Reaction
Type IV: Delayed Hypersensitivity (T Cell-Mediated) Reaction
AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
Pathogenesis (Theories) of Autoimmunity
Types and Examples of Autoimmune Diseases
SECTION III: FLUID AND HAEMODYNAMIC DISORDERS
15:
Derangements of Body Fluids
HOMEOSTASIS
NORMAL WATER AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCE (GIBBS-DONNAN EQUILIBRIUM)
ACID-BASE BALANCE
PRESSURE GRADIENTS AND FLUID EXCHANGES
DISTURBANCES OF BODY WATER
OEDEMA
Definition and Types
Pathogenesis of Oedema
Important Types of Oedema
DEHYDRATION
OVERHYDRATION
16:
Blood Flow Volume Disorders
HYPERAEMIA AND CONGESTION
ACTIVE HYPERAEMIA
PASSIVE HYPERAEMIA (VENOUS CONGESTION)
Morphology of CVC of Organs
HAEMORRHAGE
SHOCK
DEFINITION
CLASSIFICATION AND ETIOLOGY
PATHOGENESIS
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (STAGES OF SHOCK)
CLINICAL FEATURES AND COMPLICATIONS
17:
Obstructive Haemodynamic Derangements
THRMOBOSIS
DEFINITION AND EFFECTS
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
ORIGIN OF THROMBI AT DIFFERENT SITES
FATE OF THROMBUS
CLINICAL EFFECTS
EMBOLISM
DEFINITION AND TYPES
THROMBOEMBOLISM
Pulmonary Thromboembolism
SYSTEMIC EMBOLISM
FAT EMBOLISM
GAS EMBOLISM
Air Embolism
Decompression Sickness
AMNIOTIC FLUID EMBOLISM
ATHEROEMBOLISM
TUMOUR EMBOLISM
MISCELLANEOUS EMBOLI
ISCHAEMIA
DEFINITION
ETIOLOGY
FACTORS DETERMINING SEVERITY OF ISCHAEMIC INJURY
EFFECTS
INFARCTION
ETIOLOGY
TYPES OF INFARCTS
PATHOGENESIS
INFARCTS OF DIFFERENT ORGANS
SECTION IV: NEOPLASIA
18:
General Aspects of Neoplasia
DEFINITION, NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION
CHARACTERISTICS OF TUMOURS
RATE OF GROWTH
CANCER PHENOTYPE AND STEM CELLS
CLINICAL AND GROSS FEATURES
MICROSCOPIC FEATURES
1. Microscopic Pattern
2. Cytomorphology of Neoplastic Cells (Differentiation and Anaplasia)
3. Tumour Angiogenesis and Stroma
4. Inflammatory Reaction
SPREAD OF TUMOURS
LOCAL INVASION (DIRECT SPREAD)
METASTASIS (DISTANT SPREAD)
Routes of Metastasis
MECHANISM AND BIOLOGY OF INVASION AND METASTASIS
PROGNOSTIC INDICATORS
GRADING AND STAGING OF CANCER
GRADING
STAGING
19:
Etiology and Pathogenesis of Neoplasia
EPIDEMIOLOGY OF CANCER
CANCER INCIDENCE
EPIDEMIOLOGIC FACTORS
A. Predisposing Factors
B. Chronic Pre-malignant and Non-neoplastic Conditions
C. Hormones and Cancer
MOLECULAR PATHOGENESIS OF CANCER
CANCER-RELATED GENES AND CELL GROWTH (HALLMARKS OF CANCER)
1. Excessive and Autonomous Growth: Growth Promoting Oncogenes
2. Refractoriness to Growth Inhibition: Growth Suppressing Anti-Oncogenes
3. Escaping Cell Death by Apoptosis: Genes Regulating Apoptosis and Cancer
4. Avoiding Cellular Ageing: Telomeres and Telomerase in Cancer
5. Continued Perfusion of Cancer: Tumour Angiogenesis
6. Invasion and Distant Metastasis: Cancer Dissemination
7. DNA Damage and Repair System: Mutator Genes and Cancer
8. Cancer Progression and Heterogeneity: Clonal Aggressiveness
9. Cancer—A Sequential Multistep Molecular Phenomenon: Multistep Theory
10. Micro-RNAs in Cancer: Oncomirs
CARCINOGENS AND CARCINOGENESIS
A. CHEMICAL CARCINOGENESIS
Stages in Chemical Carcinogenesis
Carcinogenic Chemicals in Humans
Tests for Chemical Carcinogenicity
B. PHYSICAL CARCINOGENESIS
Radiation Carcinogenesis
Non-radiation Physical Carcinogenesis
C. BIOLOGIC CARCINOGENESIS
Viral Carcinogenesis
Viruses and Human Cancer: A Summary
20:
Host-Tumour Relationship and Diagnosis of Neoplasms
HOST RESPONSE AGAINST TUMOUR (TUMOUR IMMUNOLOGY)
1. TUMOUR ANTIGENS
2. ANTI-TUMOUR IMMUNE RESPONSES
3. CANCER IMMUNOTHERAPY
EFFECT OF TUMOUR ON HOST
A. LOCAL EFFECTS
B. SYSTEMIC MANIFESTATIONS
PATHOLOGIC DIAGNOSIS OF CANCER
1. HISTOLOGICAL METHODS
2. CYTOLOGICAL METHODS
3. HISTOCHEMISTRY AND CYTOCHEMISTRY
4. IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY
5. ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
6. TUMOUR MARKERS (BIOCHEMICAL ASSAYS)
7. OTHER MODERN AIDS IN PATHOLOGIC DIAGNOSIS OF TUMOURS
21:
Common Specific Tumours
CLASSIFICATION OF TUMOURS
EPITHELIAL TUMOURS
COMMON BENIGN EPITHELIAL TUMOURS
COMMON MALIGNANT EPITHELIAL TUMOURS
MESENCHYMAL TUMOURS
GENERAL FEATURES
Diagnostic Criteria
Grading
Staging
TUMOURS AND TUMOUR-LIKE LESIONS OF FIBROUS TISSUE
Fibromas
Reactive Tumour-like Proliferations
Fibromatosis
Fibrosarcoma
FIBROHISTIOCYTIC TUMOURS
Benign Fibrous Histiocytoma
Dermatofibrosarcoma Protuberans
Malignant Fibrous Histiocytoma (Pleomorphic Sarcoma)
TUMOURS OF ADIPOSE TISSUE
Lipoma
Liposarcoma
SKELETAL MUSCLE TUMOURS
Rhabdomyoma
Rhabdomyosarcoma
SMOOTH MUSCLE TUMOURS
Leiomyoma
Leiomyosarcoma
TUMOURS OF BLOOD VESSELS AND LYMPHATICS
Haemangioma
Lymphangioma
Glomus Tumour (Glomangioma)
Haemangioendothelioma
Haemangiopericytoma
Angiosarcoma
Kaposi’s Sarcoma
MESENCHYMAL TUMOURS OF UNCERTAIN HISTOGENESIS
Synovial Sarcoma (Malignant Synovioma)
Alveolar Soft Part Sarcoma
Granular Cell Tumour
Epithelioid Sarcoma
Clear Cell Sarcoma
Desmoplastic Small Round Cell Tumour
TERATOMAS
SECTION V: HAEMATOLOGY AND LYMPHORETICULAR TISSUES
22:
Disorders of Erythroid Series: Anaemias
BONE MARROW AND HAEMATOPOIESIS
HAEMATOPOIETIC ORGANS
HAEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELLS
BONE MARROW EXAMINATION
ERYTHROPOIESIS
ERYTHROPOIETIN
ERYTHROID SERIES
THE RED CELL
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ERYTHROPOIESIS
ANAEMIA—GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
GENERAL CLINICAL FEATURES
GENERAL SCHEME OF INVESTIGATIONS OF ANAEMIA
CLASSIFICATION OF ANAEMIAS
HYPOCHROMIC ANAEMIAS
IRON DEFICIENCY ANAEMIA
Iron Metabolism
Pathogenesis
Etiology
Clinical Features
Principles of Treatment
SIDEROBLASTIC ANAEMIA
Siderocytes and Sideroblasts
Types of Sideroblastic Anaemias
Principles of Treatment
ANAEMIA OF CHRONIC DISORDERS
Pathogenesis
MEGALOBLASTIC ANAEMIAS—VITAMIN B12 AND FOLATE DEFICIENCY
MEGALOBLASTIC ANAEMIA
Vitamin B12 Metabolism
Folate Metabolism
Biochemical Basis of Megaloblastic Anaemia
Etiology and Classification of Megaloblastic Anaemia
Clinical Features
Principles of Treatment
PERNICIOUS ANAEMIA
Pathogenesis
Clinical Features
Principles of Treatment
HAEMOLYTIC ANAEMIAS AND ANAEMIA DUE TO BLOOD LOSS
DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
GENERAL ASPECTS
General Clinical Features
Laboratory Evaluation of Haemolysis
I. ACQUIRED HAEMOLYTIC ANAEMIAS
A. Immunohaemolytic Anaemias
‘COLD’ ANTIBODY AIHA
CLINICAL AND LABORATORY FEATURES
B. Microangiopathic Haemolytic Anaemia
C. Haemolytic Anaemia From Direct Toxic Effects
D. Paroxysmal Nocturnal Haemoglobinuria (PNH)
E. Haemolytic Anaemia in Splenomegaly
II. HEREDITARY HAEMOLYTIC ANAEMIAS
A. Hereditary Abnormalities of Red Cell Membrane
B. Hereditary Disorders of Red Cell Interior
SICKLE SYNDROMES
Heterozygous State: Sickle Cell Trait
Homozygous State: Sickle Cell Anaemia
Double Heterozygous States
HBC HAEMOGLOBINOPATHY
Thalassaemias
GENETICS AND CLASSIFICATION
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF ANAEMIA IN THALASSAEMIA
α-THALASSAEMIA
β-THALASSAEMIAS
ANAEMIA DUE TO BLOOD LOSS
APLASTIC ANAEMIA AND OTHER PRIMARY BONE MARROW DISORDERS
APLASTIC ANAEMIA
Etiology and Classification
Clinical Features
OTHER PRIMARY BONE MARROW DIORDERS MYELOPHTHISIC ANAEMIA
23:
Platelets and Bleeding Disorders
PLATELETS
THROMBOPOIESIS
INVESTIGATIONS OF HAEMOSTATIC function
A. Investigation of Disordered Vascular Haemostasis
B. Investigation of Platelets and Platelet function
C. Investigation of Blood Coagulation
D. Investigation of Fibrinolytic System
E. Investigation of Coagulation Inhibitors
BLEEDING DISORDERS (HAEMORRHAGIC DIATHESIS)
I. HAEMORRHAGIC DIATHESES DUE TO VASCULAR DISORDERS
A. Inherited Vascular Bleeding Disorders
B. Acquired Vascular Bleeding Disorders
II. HAEMORRHAGIC DIATHESES DUE TO PLATELET DISORDERS
A. Thrombocytopenias
B. Thrombocytosis
C. Disorders of Platelet Functions
III. COAGULATION DISORDERS
1. Classic Haemophilia (Haemophilia A)
2. Christmas Disease (Haemophilia B)
3. von Willebrand’s Disease
4. Vitamin K Deficiency
5. Coagulation Disorders in Liver Disease
IV. OTHER BLEEDING AND COAGULATION DISORDERS
Haemorrhagic Diatheses Due to Fibrinolytic Defects
Hypercoagulable State
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)
24:
Diseases of Leucocytes and Lymphoid Tissues
LYMPH NODES: NORMAL AND REACTIVE HYPERPLASIA
REACTIVE LYMPHADENITIS
Acute Nonspecific Lymphadenitis
Chronic Nonspecific Lymphadenitis
HIV-related Lymphadenopathy
WHITE BLOOD CELLS: NORMAL AND REACTIVE PROLIFERATIONS
GRANULOPOIESIS
Site of Formation and Kinetics
Myeloid Series
Monocyte-Macrophage Series
LYMPHOPOIESIS
Sites of Formation and Kinetics
Lymphoid Series
MATURE LEUCOCYTES IN HEALTH AND REACTIVE PROLIFERATION IN DISEASE
Polymorphs (Neutrophils)
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Eosinophils
Basophils
INFECTIOUS MONONUCLEOSIS
Pathogenesis
Clinical Features
LEUKAEMOID REACTIONS
Myeloid Leukaemoid Reaction
Lymphoid Leukaemoid Reaction
LYMPHOHAEMATOPOIETIC MALIGNANCIES (LEUKAEMIAS-LYMPHOMAS): GENERAL
CLASSIFICATION: HISTORY AND CURRENT CONCEPTS
ETIOLOGY OF LYMPHOHAEMATOPOIETIC MALIGNANCIES
PATHOGENESIS
MYELOID NEOPLASMS
MYELOPROLIFERATIVE DISEASES
Chronic Myeloid Leukaemia (CML)
Polycythaemia Vera
Essential Thrombocythaemia
ACUTE MYELOID LEUKAEMIA
MYELODYSPLASTIC SYNDROMES
LYMPHOID NEOPLASMS: GENERAL
HISTORY AND CLASSIFICATION
COMMON TO ALL LYMPHOID MALIGNANCIES
HODGKIN’S DISEASE
CLASSIFICATION
REED-STERNBERG CELL
OTHER LABORATORY FINDINGS
CLINICAL FEATURES
STAGING
PROGNOSIS
NON-HODGKIN’S LYMPHOMAS-LEUKAEMIAS
PRECURSOR (IMMATURE) B- AND T-CELL LEUKAEMIA/LYMPHOMA (SYNONYM: ACUTE LYMPHOBLASTIC LEUKAEMIA)
Clinical Features
Principles of Treatment and Prognosis
PERIPHERAL (MATURE) B-CELL MALIGNANCIES
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukaemia/ Small Lymphocytic Lymphoma (B-cell CLL/SLL)
Follicular Lymphoma
Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma (DLBCL)
Burkitt’s Lymphoma/Leukaemia
Extranodal Marginal Zone B-Cell Lymphoma of MALT Type ( Synonym: Maltoma)
Hairy Cell Leukaemia (HCL)
PERIPHERAL (MATURE) T-CELL MALIGNANCIES
Mycosis Fungoides/Sézary Syndrome
Anaplastic Large T/NK Cell Lymphoma (ALCL)
LYMPH NODE METASTATIC TUMOURS
PLASMA CELL DISORDERS
MULTIPLE MYELOMA
LOCALISED PLASMACYTOMA
MONOCLONAL GAMMOPATHY OF UNDETERMINED SIGNIFICANCE (MGUS)
HISTIOCYTIC NEOPLASMS: LANGERHANS CELL HISTIOCYTOSIS
EOSINOPHILIC GRANULOMA
HAND-SCHÜLLER-CHRISTIAN DISEASE
LETTERER-SIWE DISEASE
SPLEEN
NORMAL STRUCTURE
SPLENIC ENLARGEMENT AND EFFECTS ON FUNCTION
Splenomegaly
Hypersplenism
EFFECTS OF SPLENECTOMY
SPLENIC RUPTURE
TUMOURS
SECTION VI: SELECTED TOPICS FROM SYSTEMIC PATHOLOGY
25:
Diseases of Cardiovascular System
NORMAL STRUCTURE
THE HEART
ARTERIES
VEINS
CAPILLARIES
CARDIAC FAILURE
ETIOLOGY
TYPES OF HEART FAILURE
Acute and Chronic Heart Failure
Left-sided and Right-sided Heart Failure
Backward and Forward Heart Failure
COMPENSATORY MECHANISMS: CARDIAC HYPERTROPHY AND DILATATION
Cardiac Hypertrophy
Cardiac Dilatation
CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE
I. MALPOSITIONS OF THE HEART
II. SHUNTS (CYANOTIC CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE)
A. Left-to-Right Shunts (Acyanotic or Late Cyanotic Group)
B. Right-to-Left Shunts (Cyanotic Group)
III. OBSTRUCTIONS (OBSTRUCTIVE CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE)
ATHEROSCLEROSIS
ETIOLOGY
PATHOGENESIS
CLINICAL EFFECTS
ISCHAEMIC HEART DISEASE
ETIOPATHOGENESIS
I. Coronary Atherosclerosis
II. Superadded Changes in Coronary Atherosclerosis
III. Non-atherosclerotic Causes
EFFECTS OF MYOCARDIAL ISCHAEMIA
Angina Pectoris
Acute Myocardial Infarction
Chronic Ischaemic Heart Disease
Sudden Cardiac Death
RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE
INCIDENCE
ETIOPATHOGENESIS
B. Extracardiac Lesions
PROGNOSIS
NON-RHEUMATIC ENDOCARDITIS
ATYPICAL VERRUCOUS (LIBMAN-SACKS) ENDOCARDITIS
NON-BACTERIAL THROMBOTIC (CACHECTIC, MARANTIC) ENDOCARDITIS
INFECTIVE (BACTERIAL) ENDOCARDITIS
Specific Types of Infective Endocarditis
PATHOLOGY OF CARDIOVASCULAR INTERVENTIONS
ENDOMYOCARDIAL BIOPSY
BALLOON ANGIOPLASTY
CORONARY ARTERY BYPASS GRAFTING
CARDIAC TRANSPLANTATION
26:
Diseases of Oral Cavity and Salivary Glands
ORAL SOFT TISSUES
NORMAL STRUCTURE
DEVELOPMENTAL ANOMALIES
MUCOCUTANEOUS LESIONS
INFLAMMATORY AND PIGMENTARY DISEASES
TUMOURS AND TUMOUR-LIKE LESIONS
A. Tumour-like Lesions
B. Benign Tumours
C. Oral Leukoplakia (White Lesions)
D. Malignant Tumours
TEETH AND PERIODONTAL TISSUES
NORMAL STRUCTURE
INFLAMMATORY DISEASES
Dental Caries
Periodontal Disease
EPITHELIAL CYSTS OF the JAW
A. Inflammatory Cysts
B. Developmental Cysts
ODONTOGENIC TUMOURS
A. Benign Odontogenic Tumours
B. Malignant Odontogenic Tumours
SALIVARY GLANDS
NORMAL STRUCTURE
INFLAMMATORY AND SALIVARY FLOW DISEASES
Sialorrhoea (Ptyalism)
Xerostomia
Sialadenitis
TUMOURS OF SALIVARY GLANDS
A. Benign Salivary Gland Tumours
B. Malignant Salivary Gland Tumours
27:
Jaundice, Hepatitis and Cirrhosis
JAUNDICE
NORMAL BILIRUBIN METABOLISM
TYPES OF LIVER CELL NECROSIS
CLASSIFICATION AND FEATURES OF JAUNDICE
I. Predominantly Unconjugated Hyperbilirubinaemia
II. Predominantly Conjugated Hyperbilirubinaemia (Cholestasis)
NEONATAL JAUNDICE
Hereditary Non-Haemolytic Hyperbilirubianemia
Neonatal Hepatitis
Biliary Atresias
Reye’s Syndrome
VIRAL HEPATITIS
ETIOLOGIC CLASSIFICATION
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis B
Hepatitis D
Hepatitis C
Hepatitis E
CLINICOPATHOLOGIC SPECTRUM
I. Carrier State
II. Asymptomatic Infection
III. Acute Hepatitis
IV. Chronic Hepatitis
V. Fulminant Hepatitis (Submassive to Massive Necrosis)
IMMUNOPROPHYLAXIS AND HEPATITIS VACCINES
CIRRHOSIS
PATHOGENESIS
CLASSIFICATION
Alcoholic Liver Disease and Cirrhosis
Post-necrotic Cirrhosis
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS AND COMPLICATIONS OF CIRRHOSIS
PORTAL HYPERTENSION
CLASSIFICATION
MAJOR SEQUELAE OF PORTAL HYPERTENSION
1. Ascites
2. Varices (Collateral Channels or Porto-systemic Shunts)
3. Splenomegaly
4. Hepatic Encephalopathy
28:
Hypertension and its Consequences
SYSTEMIC HYPERTENSION
DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
ETIOLOGY AND PATHOGENESIS
Essential (Primary) Hypertension
Secondary Hypertension
CONSEQUENCES OF HYPERTENSION
ARTERIOLOSCLEROSIS
Hyaline Arterioloscelosis
Hyperplastic Arteriolosclerosis
Necrotising Arteriolitis
HYPERTENSIVE HEART DISEASE
NEPHROSCLEROSIS
Benign Nephrosclerosis
Malignant Nephrosclerosis
STROKE (INTRACRANIAL HAEMORRHAGE)
Intracerebral Haemorrhage
Subarachnoid Haemorrhage
HYPERTENSIVE RETINOPATHY
29:
Diabetes Mellitus and its Complications
NORMAL STRUCTURE OF ENDOCRINE PANCREAS
DIABETES MELLITUS
DEFINITION AND EPIDEMIOLOGY
CLASSIFICATION AND ETIOLOGY
PATHOGENESIS
Normal Insulin Metabolism
Pathogenesis of Type 1 DM
Pathogenesis of Type 2 DM
CLINICAL FEATURES
COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES
PATHOGENESIS
ACUTE METABOLIC COMPLICATIONS
LATE SYSTEMIC COMPLICATIONS
DIAGNOSIS OF DIABETES
30:
Common Diseases of Bones, Cartilage and Joints
NORMAL STRUCTURE OF SKELETON
BONES
CARTILAGE
INFECTION, NECROSIS, FRACTURE HEALING
OSTEOMYELITIS
AVASCULAR NECROSIS (OSTEONECROSIS)
FRACTURE HEALING
DISORDERS OF BONE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
ACHONDROPLASIA
OSTEOGENESIS IMPERFECTA
OSTEOPETROSIS
METABOLIC AND ENDOCRINE BONE DISEASES
OSTEOPOROSIS
OSTEITIS FIBROSA CYSTICA
RENAL OSTEODYSTROPHY (METABOLIC BONE DISEASE)
SKELETAL FLUOROSIS
PAGET’S DISEASE OF BONE (OSTEITIS DEFORMANS)
TUMOUR-LIKE LESIONS OF BONE
FIBROUS DYSPLASIA
FIBROUS CORTICAL DEFECT (METAPHYSEAL FIBROUS DEFECT, NON-OSSIFYING FIBROMA)
SOLITARY (SIMPLE, UNICAMERAL) BONE CYST
ANEURYSMAL BONE CYST
TUMOURS OF BONE AND CARTILAGE
BONE-FORMING (OSTEOBLASTIC) TUMOURS
Central (Medullary) Osteosarcoma
Surface Osteosarcoma
CARTILAGE-FORMING (CHONDROBLASTIC) TUMOURS
GIANT CELL TUMOUR (OSTEOCLASTOMA)
EWING’S SARCOMA AND PRIMITIVE NEUROECTODERMAL TUMOUR (ES/PNET)
CHORDOMA
METASTATIC BONE TUMOURS
DISEASES OF JOINTS
NOMRAL STRUCTURE OF JOINTS
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE (OSTEOARTHRITIS)
INFLAMMATORY JOINT DISEASES
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Suppurative Arthritis
Tuberculous Arthritis
GOUT AND GOUTY ARTHRITIS
PIGMENTED VILLONODULAR SYNOVITIS AND TENOSYNOVIAL GIANT CELL TUMOUR (NODULAR TENOSYNOVITIS)
CYST OF GANGLION
BURSITIS
INDEX
TOC
Index
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