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Quantitative Research Methods in Health Sciences
Rajendra Karkee
SECTION 1: RESEARCH PROCESS
CHAPTER 1:
What is Research
CHAPTER 2:
Health System Research
INTRODUCTION
CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 3:
Research Process and Research Integrity
SECTION 2: DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
CHAPTER 4:
Introduction and Rationale
4.1 IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM/RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND DECIDING A TOPIC
4.2 WRITING THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
4.3 RATIONALE
4.4 TITLE
CHAPTER 5:
Objectives
5.1 CRITERIA OF GOOD OBJECTIVES
5.2 GENERAL AND SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE
CHAPTER 6:
Research Methods
6.1 STUDY TYPES AND DESIGN
6.1.1 Descriptive or Analytical
6.1.2 Observational or Experimental
6.1.3 Prospective or Retrospective
6.1.4 Longitudinal or Cross-sectional
6.2 STUDY POPULATION AND SAMPLING
6.2.1 Non-probability Sampling
6.2.2 Probability Sampling
6.2.3 Exclusion/Inclusion Criteria for Study Subjects
6.3 VARIABLES AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
6.3.1 Categorical and Numerical Variable
6.3.2 Raw and Derived Variable
6.3.3 Exposure and Outcome Variable
6.4 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES AND TOOLS
6.4.1 Using available information
6.4.2 Observing
6.4.3 Interviewing
6.5 PLAN FOR DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS
CHAPTER 7:
Ethical Considerations
7.1 BENEFITS
7.2 INFORMED CONSENT
7.3 PROTECTION OF PARTICIPANTS
7.4 PRIVACY
CHAPTER 8:
Budget and Time Frame
CHAPTER 9:
References
SECTION 3: DOING THE RESEARCH
CHAPTER 10:
Study Types
10.1 ECOLOGICAL STUDY
10.2 CASE REPORT AND CASE SERIES
10.3 CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY
10.3.1 Need Assessment
10.3.2 Estimation of Sensitivity and Specificity (Diagnostic Accuracy)
10.3.3 Studies of Measurement of Validity, Reliability and Agreement
10.3.4 Surveillance Studies
10.3.5 Prevalence Study and Social Survey
10.3.5.1 Household Survey: A Stratified Multistage Cluster Design
10.4 CASE-CONTROL STUDY
10.4.1 Definition and Selection of Cases
10.4.2 Selection of Controls
10.4.3 Ascertainment of Disease and Exposure Status
10.5 COHORT STUDY
10.6 RANDOMIZED CONTROL TRIAL
10.7 RELATION AMONG THREE OBSERVATIONAL STUDY DESIGNS
CHAPTER 11:
Sampling and Sample Size Determination
11.1 SAMPLING
11.1.1 Probability Sampling
11.1.1.1 Defining the Population to be Covered
11.1.1.2 Defining Sampling Units
11.1.1.3 Acquiring the Sampling Frame (N)
11.1.1.4 Decide about the Size of the Sample (n)
11.1.1.5 Deciding about the Sampling Scheme
11.1.2 Non-probability Sampling
11.1.2.1 Convenience Sampling/Accidental Sampling
11.1.2.2 Quota Sampling
11.1.2.3 Purposive Sampling
11.1.2.4 Snowball Sampling
11.2 SAMPLE SIZE CALCULATIONS
11.2.1 Factors Affecting Sample Size Calculation
11.2.1.1 Population Characteristics
11.2.1.2 Nature of Analysis
11.2.1.3 Precision of Estimates
11.2.1.4 Available Resources
11.2.1.5 Study Design
11.2.1.6 Response Rate
11.2.2 Concepts and Steps of Sample Size Calculation
11.2.2.1 Specify Study Objectives
11.2.2.2 Specify the Significance Level (α) of the Study (Usually 5%)
11.2.2.3 Know the Variability in the Population
11.2.2.4 Specify the Intended Power (β) of the Study (Only in Hypothesis Test, Usually 80%)
11.2.3 Sample Size Calculation Examples
CHAPTER 12:
Data Collection and Measurement
12.1 QUALITATIVE, QUANTITATIVE AND MIXED METHOD
12.2 QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION
12.2.1 Questionnaire
12.2.2 Questionnaire Design and Development
12.2.2.1 Introductory Information and Overall Layout
12.2.2.2 Question Formats
12.2.2.3 Questions Order
12.2.2.4 Question Wording
12.2.3 Interview Techniques
12.3 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
12.3.1 Evaluating Validity
12.3.1.1 Face Validity
12.3.1.2 Content Validity
12.3.1.3 Criterion-related Validity
12.3.1.4 Construct Validity
12.3.2 Evaluating Reliability
12.3.2.1 Inter-rater
12.3.2.2 Intra-rater
12.3.2.3 Test-retest
12.3.2.4 Internal Consistency or Homogeneity
12.4 SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY
12.5 BIAS IN DATA COLLECTION
12.5.1 Defective Instruments
12.5.2 Observer Bias
12.5.3 Effect of the Interview on the Informant
12.5.4 Information Bias
CHAPTER 13:
Data Analysis I: Descriptive Statistics
13.1 DATA PRESENTATION
13.1.1 Univariate Case
13.1.1.1 Categorical Variables
13.1.1.2 Numerical variables
13.1.2 Bivariate Case
13.1.2.1 Categorical Variables
13.1.2.2 Numerical Variables
13.1.2.3 Line Graphs
13.2 DATA SUMMARIZATION
13.2.1 Categorical Variable
13.2.1.1 Prevalence
13.2.1.2 Incidence
13.2.1.3 Relation of Incidence and Prevalence
13.2.2 Continuous Variables
13.2.2.1 Measure of Central Tendency
13.2.2.2 Measure of Variability
13.2.2.3 Data Distribution: Putting it Altogether
13.2.2.4 Normal distribution (for a continuous variable) and probability distribution
13.3 ANALYSIS EXERCISES FOR ONE VARIABLE
CHAPTER 14:
Data Analysis II: Inferential Statistics
14.1 DATA ANALYSIS AND INFERENCE PROCESS
14.2 UNIVARIABLE ANALYSIS AND ASSOCIATION
14.2.1 Measuring Association: Comparing Two Proportions
14.2.1.1 Absolute Risk
14.2.1.2 Relative Risk/Risk Ratio (RR)
14.2.1.3 Odds, Probability and Odds Ratio
14.2.1.4 Risk Difference
14.2.1.5 Attributable Risk
14.2.2 Comparing Risk in Observational Studies
14.3 VALIDITY OF THE ASSOCIATION: RULING OUT CHANCE, BIAS AND CONFOUNDING
14.3.1 Bias
14.3.2 Confounding
14.3.3 Chance and Statistical Inference
14.3.3.1 Estimation
14.3.3.2 Hypothesis Testing
14.4 Validity and Generalizability
14.5 ANALYSIS EXERCISES (BIVARIATE ASSOCIATION) FOR TWO VARIABLES
CHAPTER 15:
Data Analysis III: Choosing Statistical Tests
15.1 BASIS FOR IDENTIFYING A SUITABLE STATISTICAL TEST
15.1.1 Outcome Variable is Continuous
15.1.1.1 Univariable Analysis
15.1.1.2 Multivariable Analysis
15.1.2 Outcome Variable is Binary
15.1.2.1 Univariable
15.1.2.2 Multivariable
15.1.3 Outcome Variable is Rate
15.1.4 Outcome Variable is Survival Time (Time to Event)
15.1.4.1 Univariable
15.1.4.2 Multivariable
15.1.5 When the Data are Clustered
15.2 DETERMINING ANALYSIS PLAN: STATISTICAL MODELING
15.2.1 Start by Exploring the Data: Descriptive and Univariable Analyses
15.2.2 Build Regression Model, Assess the Assumptions and Fit of the Model (by Means of R2) and Interpret the Results
15.2.2.1 Types of Multiple Regression
15.2.2.2 Model Building
15.3 ANALYSIS EXERCISES FOR STATISTICAL TESTS (ONE, TWO OR SEVERAL VARIABLES)
CHAPTER 16:
Bias
16.1 SELECTION BIAS
16.2 INFORMATION BIAS
16.3 CONFOUNDING BIAS
16.3.1 Control of Confounding
16.3.2 Confounding, Mediating (Intermediate) and Moderator (Effect Modifier) Variable
SECTION 4: REPORTING THE RESEARCH
CHAPTER 17:
Writing Process
17.1 START WRITING TODAY
17.2 GENERAL WRITING TIPS
17.2.1 Clarity, Coherence, and Conciseness
17.2.2 Being Critical
17.2.3 Paraphrasing and Quoting
CHAPTER 18:
Writing a manuscript
18.1 ABSTRACT
18.2 INTRODUCTION
18.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
18.4 RESULTS
18.4.1 Initial Analyses (Univariable)
18.4.2 Bivariate Analyses/Univariable Analyses
18.4.3 Multivariable Analyses
18.5 DISCUSSIONS
18.6 CONCLUSION
18.7 REFERENCES
18.7.1 Plagiarism and Referencing
18.7.2 How to Reference
CHAPTER 19:
Critical Appraisals and Literature Review
19.1 CRITICAL APPRAISALS AND PUBLICATION GUIDELINES
19.2 Literature Review
19.2.1 Where to Look for Literature?
19.2.2 Doing Literature Review: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
19.2.2.1 Searching Relevant Literature
19.2.2.2 Steps doing Systematics Review
CHAPTER 20:
Appendices
20.1 SOLUTIONS TO DATA ANALYSIS EXERCISES
20.1.1 Analysis Exercises for One Variable (▶13.3)
20.1.2 Analysis Exercises for Two Variables (▶14.5)
20.1.3 Analysis Exercises for Statistical Tests (▶15.3)
Two Variables
Several Variables (Regression)
20.1.4 Summary of STATA and SPSS Menu for Data Analysis
20.2 PUBLICATION GUIDELINES
20.2.1 STROBE Statement
20.2.2 PRISMA
20.3 SAMPLE SIZE CALCULATION TABLES
20.3.1 Specified Absolute Precision for a Population Proportion
20.3.2 Hypothesis Test for Two Population Proportions
20.4 AN EXAMPLE OF QUESTIONNAIRE
20.5 ETHICS
20.5.1 Participant Information Sheet
20.5.2 Consent Form
Bibliography
INDEX
TOC
Index
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