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Essentials of Nursing Research & Biostatistics
Bijayalaskhmi Dash
CHAPTER 1:
Introduction to Nursing Research
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
Meaning of Research
Definitions of Research
Characteristics of Research
General Aims of Research
Observe and Describe
Predict
Explore
Speculate
Evaluate
PROBLEM-SOLVING
Definitions of Problem-solving Method
Purposes of Problem-solving
Problem-solving Process
Problem Definition
Problem Analysis
Generating Possible Solution
Analysis the Solution
Selecting the Best Solution
Implementing the Solution
Evaluation and Revision
Advantages of Problem-solving
Scientific Method
Characteristics of Scientific Method
Difference between Problem-solving and Research
Types of Research
Basic vs Applied
Qualitative vs Quantitative
Experimental vs Nonexperimental
Descriptive vs Analytical
Retrospective vs Prospective
Retrospective
Prospective
NURSING RESEARCH
Definitions of Nursing Research
Importance of Nursing Research
Scope and Areas of Nursing Research
Research in Nursing Practice
Tenets Characteristic of Nursing Practice
Research in Nursing Education
Research in Nursing Administration
Research in Health Systems and Outcomes of Care
HISTORY OF NURSING RESEARCH
Contribution of Florence Nightingale (1820—1910)
MAJOR MILESTONES OF NURSING RESEARCH IN WESTERN COUNTRIES
Major Milestones of Nursing Research in India
Use of Nursing Research in Practice
Barriers of Using Nursing Research
Values and Qualification of Practicing Nurses
Process of Implementing Research
Institutional Factors
STRATEGIES FOR INCREASING USE OF RESEARCH IN PRACTICE
Planned Changes
Unfreezing
Changing
Refreezing
Conceptualization of Nursing Research and Nursing Science
Nature of Nursing Science
Model for Conceptualization of Nursing Research and Nursing Sciences
Fundamental Research and Science
Practice Research and the Science of Practice
NURSING RESEARCH AND EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE
MEANING OF EBP
Steps in the EBP Process
Cultivate a Spirit of Inquiry
Ask a Burning Clinical Question
Hierarchy of Evidence
Critical Appraisal
Final Steps of EBP
Select a Clinical Research Problem or Question
Search Relevant Literature Review
Critically Appraise the Evidences
Implement the Best Evidence in Practice
Evaluate the Efficacy of the Evidence
‘A's of the Steps of EBP
Strategy to Expand Research Use in Practice: Rogers’ Theory of Diffusion of Innovation
Knowledge Stage
Persuasion Stage
Decision Stage
Implementation Stage
Confirmation Stage
An Example for Research-based Protocol for Decreasing Discomfort with Intramuscular (IM) Injection
Importance or Purpose of EBP
Iowa Model of Evidence–based Practice in Nursing
An Example of the Iowa Model of Evidence-based Practice
STETLER MODEL OF EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE
Phase I: Preparation—Purpose, Context and Sources of Research Evidence
Phase II: Validation—Credibility of Findings and Potential for/Detailed Qualifiers of Application
Phase III: Comparative Evaluation/Decision-making—Synthesis and Recommendations per Criteria of Applicability
Phase IV: Translation/Application—Operational Definition of Use/Actions for Change
Phase V: Evaluation
Barriers to EBP in Nursing
CHAPTER 2:
Research Process
INTRODUCTION
MAJOR PHASES IN THE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
Phase of Conception
Formulation of Research Problem
Determine the Objectives of the Study
Searching and Review the Literature Relating to the Research Problem
Develop a Theoretical or Conceptual Framework
Identify the Study Assumption
Acknowledge the Limitation of the Study
Formulate Hypothesis
Phase of Construction of Research Design
Identification of Variables
Construction of Operational Definitions
Selection of Research Design
Developing Protocols
Selection of Study Population
Selection of Sample
Development of Tools and Specifying Methods to Measure Variables
Obtained Ethical Approval
Empiric Phase
Conduction of Pilot Study
Develop Well-prepared Research Team
Collect the Data
Preparing the Data for Analysis
Analytic Phase
Analyzing the Data
Interpreting the Results
Disseminative Phase
Putting the Evidence into Practice
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS STEPS
TERMINOLOGY
Applied Research
Basic Research
Clinical Nursing Research
Empirical Data
Nursing Research
Outcomes Research
Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research
Accessible Population
Assumptions
Data
Dependent Variable
Hypothesis
Independent Variable
Limitations
Operational Definition
Pilot Study
Population
Research Design
Sample
Target Population
Variable
Anonymity
Confidentiality
Informed Consent
Bivariate Study
Multivariate Study
Replication Study
Univariate Study
Abstract (Research Abstracts)
Indexes
Primary Source
Secondary Source
Concept
Conceptual Framework
Conceptual Model
Construct
Deductive Reasoning
Empirical Generalization
Grand Theories
Inductive Reasoning
Middle-range Theories
Model
Proposition
Theoretical Framework
Theory
Hypothesis
Directional Research Hypothesis
Interaction Effect
Nondirectional Research Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis (H0)
Research Hypothesis (H1)
Simple Hypothesis
Comparative Studies
Comparison Group
Control Group
Correlation
Correlation Coefficient
Correlational Studies
Descriptive Studies
Experimenter Effect
Explanatory Studies
Exploratory Studies
Ex Post Facto Studies
External Validity
Extraneous Variable
Field Studies
Hawthorne Effect
History
Instrumentation Change
Validity
Laboratory Studies
Manipulation
Maturation
Methodological Studies
Mortality
Negative Relationship (Inverse Relationship)
Nonequivalent Control Group Design
One-group Pretest-post-test Design
One-shot Case Study
Positive Relationship (Direct Relationship)
Post-test-only Control Group Design
Pre-experimental Design
Pretest-post-test Control Group Design
Prospective Studies
Quasi Experimental Design
Random Assignment
Reactive Effects of the Pretest
Retrospective Studies
Rosenthal Effect
Selection Bias
Simulation Studies
Solomon Four-group Design
Survey Studies
Testing
Time-series Design
True Experimental Design
Case Studies
Content Analysis
Ethnographic Studies
External Criticism (External Appraisal, External Examination)
Focus Group
Grounded Theory Studies
Historical Studies
Internal Criticism
Phenomenological Studies
Saturation
Triangulation
Cluster Random Sampling
Cohort Study
Convenience Sampling (Accidental Sampling)
Cross-sectional Study
Disproportional Stratified Sampling
Element
Longitudinal Study
Nonprobability Sampling
Power Analysis
Probability Sampling
Proportional Stratified Sampling
Purposive Sampling (Judgmental Sampling)
Quota Sampling
Sampling Bias
Sampling Error
Sampling Frame
Simple Random Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling
Table of Random Numbers
Volunteers
Concurrent Validity
Construct Validity
Content Validity
Criterion Validity
Equivalence Reliability
Face Validity
Factor Analysis
Internal Consistency Reliability (Scale Homogeneity)
Interobserver Reliability
Interrater Reliability (Interobserver Reliability)
Interval Level of Measurement
Known-groups Procedure
Measurement
Nominal Level of Measurement
Ordinal Level of Measurement
Predictive Validity
Ratio Level of Measurement
Reliability
Research Instruments (Research Tools)
Stability Reliability
Validity
Ambiguous Questions
Attitude Scales
Attribute Variables
Close-ended Questions
Collectively Exhaustive Categories
Contingency Questions
Delphi Technique
Demographic Questions
Demographic Variables
Double-barreled Questions
Event Sampling
Filler Questions
Interview
Interview Schedule
Likert Scale
Mutually Exclusive Categories
Nonparticipant Observer-covert
Nonparticipant Observer-overt
Observation Research
Open-ended Questions
Participant Observer-covert
Participant Observer-overt
Personality Inventories
Pre-existing Data
Probes
Projective Technique
Q-sort (Q Methodology)
Questionnaire
Semantic Differential
Semistructured Interviews
Structured Interviews
Structured Observations
Telephone Interviews
Time Sampling
Unstructured Interviews
Unstructured Observations
Visual Analogue Scale
Bar Graph
Bimodal
Class Interval
Coefficient of Determination (r2, r2)
Contingency Table
Descriptive Statistics
Frequency Distribution
Frequency Polygon
Histogram
Inferential Statistics
Interquartile Range
Mean (m)
Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of Relationship
Measures of Variability
Measures to Condense Data
Median (md, mdn)
Modal Class
Mode (mo)
Multimodal
Negatively Skewed
Nonsymmetrical Distribution (Skewed Distribution)
Normal Curve
Normal Distribution
Parameter
Percentage (%)
Percentile
Positively Skewed
Range
Scatter Plot (Scatter Diagram, Scattergram)
Semiquartile Range
Standard Deviation (sd; s)
Statistic
Symmetrical Distributions
Unimodal
Variance (sd2;s2)
Z-score
Analysis of Covariance (Ancova)
Analysis of Variance (Anova)
Canonical Correlation
Central Limit Theorem
Chi-square Test
Confidence Interval
Critical Region (Region of Rejection)
Critical Value
Degrees of Freedom (DF)
Dependent t-test
Independent t-test
Level of Significance (Probability Level)
Meta-analysis
Multiple Regression
Multivariate Analysis of Variance (Manova)
Nonparametric Tests (Distribution-free Statistics)
One-tailed Test of Significance
Parametric Tests
Power of a Statistical Test
Sampling Distribution
Standard Error of the Mean
T-test (t)
Two-tailed Test of Significance
Type I Error
Type II Error
Columns
Rows
Blind Review
Call for Abstract
Galley Proofs
Nonrefereed Journal
Peer Review
Query Letter
Refereed Journal
Research Report
CHAPTER 3:
Research Problems, Objectives, Variables Hypothesis, Delimitation and Assumptions
INTRODUCTION
Definitions of Research Problem
Meaning of Research Problem
SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS
Personal Experience
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM
Interesting
Solvable/Researchable
Feasible/Practicable
Time
Money
Availability to Subjects
Ethical Considerations
Administrative Support
Researcher's Competence
Technical Expertise of Researcher
Significance to Nursing Profession
Originality
Current
QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS
STEPS IN DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
Decide on the General Area of Study or Investigation
Explore the Phenomena
Narrow the Topic to a Specific Problem
Review the Topic to Determine Present Level of Knowledge
Evaluate the Research Problem for Feasibility
Formulating Final Statement of Research Problem
CRITERIA PROBLEM STATEMENT
Clear and Unambiguous
Relationship between Variables
Possibility of Empirical Testing
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Concept and Definitions
Definitions of Objectives
Definition of Research Objectives
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
TYPES OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
General Objectives
Specific Objectives
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH ACCORDING TO DIFFERENT TYPES OF STUDY
Research Objectives in Different Studies
VARIABLES CONCEPT
Types of Variables
Dependent Variables
Independent Variable
Active and Attribute Variables
Discrete Variables
Continuous Variables
Extraneous Variables
Confounding Variables
Research Variables
HYPOTHESIS CONCEPT
Definitions
Purposes of Hypothesis
IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS IN QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
Characteristics of Hypothesis
Functions of Hypothesis
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
Null and Alternative Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
Alternate Hypothesis
Simple and Complex Hypothesis
Simple Hypothesis
Complex Hypothesis
Directional and Nondirectional Hypothesis
Directional Hypothesis
Nondirectional Hypothesis
Casual Hypothesis
Associative Hypothesis
DELIMITATIONS
Concept
Uses of Delimitation
Types of Delimitation
Theoretical Delimitation
Methodological Delimitation
Points to Remember while Writing Delimitation
LIMITATIONS
ASSUMPTIONS
Definition
Uses of Assumption in Research
Types of Assumptions
Universal Assumptions
Assumptions Based on Theories
Assumption Needed to Conduct a Research
Examples of Assumption
Difference between Assumption and Hypothesis
CHAPTER 4:
Review of Literature
INTRODUCTION
Meaning of Literature Review
Definitions
PURPOSES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW
SOURCES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Electronic Sources
Printed Sources
Journals
STEPS FOLLOWED FOR GOOD LITERATURE REVIEW
Step 1: Formulating Questions for a Review
Step 2: Identifying the Relevant Sources
Step 3: Searching the Literature
Step 4: Analyzing and Synthesizing the Literature
Step 5: Writing the Literature Review
Introduction
Main Body
Conclusion
Bibliography
CHAPTER 5:
Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks
COMMON TERMS
Theory
Concept
Conceptual Model
Philosophy
Assumptions
Phenomenon
CONCEPTS OF THEORIES AND NURSING THEORIES
Definitions
CHARACTERISTICS OF A THEORY
NURSING THEORY
History and Evolution of Nursing Theory
TYPES OF THEORY
Grand Theories
Characteristics of Grand Theories
MIDDLE-RANGE THEORIES
The Characteristics of Middle-Range Theory
Situation Specific Theories
Descriptive Theories
Prescriptive Theories
Characteristics of a Theory
Uses of Theories
Research Framework
Theoretical Framework
How should the Theoretical Framework Formulated
Input
Throughput
Output
Perception
Conceptual Framework
Definition of Conceptual Framework
Purposes of Conceptual Framework
METAPHOR IN DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Conceptual Metaphor
Definition
Uses of Metaphor
Theory, Concept-Constructive Metaphor
Ingredients of Conceptual Framework
Prerequisites to Develop a Conceptual Framework
COMPONENTS
Concept or Variable
Relationship
Statement Hierarchy
STEPS OF DEVELOPING CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Identify the General Concepts
Gathering Relevant Information
Formulate General Scheme of Relevant Concepts
Development of Logical Construct
Evaluation and Revision
Establishment of Congruity
CHAPTER 6:
Ethics in Research
INTRODUCTION
Definition
IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS IN NURSING RESEARCH
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
CODES OF ETHICS IN NURSING RESEARCH
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES IN NURSING RESEARCH
Principles of Beneficence
Freedom from Harm
Freedom from Exploitation
Benefits from Research
The Risk-Benefit Ratio
PRINCIPLES OF RESPECT FOR HUMAN DIGNITY
The Right to Self-determination
The Right to Full Disclosure
THE PRINCIPLES OF JUSTICE
The Right to Fair Treatment
The Right to Privacy
INFORM CONSENT
MAJOR ELEMENTS OF INFORMED CONSENT
Vulnerable Participants
Assessing Participant Understanding
Skills of the Researcher
Duty of Confidentiality
Methods for Protecting Confidentiality Include
Criminal Activities
Withdrawal
Reasons for Limiting Information
ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF A NURSE RESEARCHER
DILEMMA IN NURSING RESEARCH
ETHICAL COMMITTEE IN RESEARCH
Why are Research Ethics Committee Needed?
ROLE OF RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEES (REC)
Protection of Research Participants
Society
Researchers
Composition of Research Ethics Committees
Expert and Lay Members
CHAPTER 7:
Concept of Research Design
INTRODUCTION
Definitions
Meaning of Research Design
Elements
FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF RESEARCH DESIGN
CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Quantitative
Principles
QUALITATIVE
Principles
Experimental Research Design
Characteristics of Experimental Research Design
Control
Randomization
Manipulation
Advantages
Disadvantages
Pretest-Post-test Control Group Design
Post-test Only Control Group Design
Advantages of the Solomon Four-Group Design
Limitations
Factorial Design
PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
One-shot Case Study or Single Case Study
Disadvantages
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
Static-group Comparison Design
Advantages
Advantages
Disadvantages
Nonequivalent Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
Time Series Design with the Single-Group
Multiple Time Series Design
Counterbalanced Design
NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
The Cause of Using Nonexperimental Research Design?
Classification
DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
Univariate Studies
Prevalence Studies
Incidence Studies
Exploratory Design
Comparative Descriptive Design
CORRELATIONAL DESIGN
Types of Correlational Research Design
Prospective Research Design
Retrospective Research Design
Characteristics of Correlational Research
DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
Cross-sectional Design
Longitudinal Research Design
SURVEY DESIGN
According to the Span of Time Involved
Cross-sectional Surveys
Longitudinal Surveys
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
Aims
Characteristics
Focus on Natural Settings
An Interest in Meanings, Perspectives and Understandings
An Emphasis on Process
Flexible
Classifications
Ethnography
Focused Ethnography and its Relevance for Nursing
Focused Ethnography in Nursing Research
PHENOMENOLOGY
Meaning of Phenomenology
Importance of Phenomenology
Phenomenological Research
Phenomenology Types
Hermeneutic Phenomenology
Transcendental Phenomenology
Existential Phenomenology
Assumptions of Phenomenology
Methodology
Bracketing
Intuiting
Analyzing
Describing
HISTORICAL STUDIES
Meaning
Source of Data
Criticism
Steps of Conducting of Historical Research
Case Studies
Content Analysis
Action Research Studies
Participatory Action Research (PAR)
Grounded Theory
CHAPTER 8:
Sampling and its Design
INTRODUCTION
CONCEPT OF POPULATION
Definition of Population
Eligibility Criteria of Population During Selection
Costs
Practical Constraints
People's Ability to Participate in a Study
Design Considerations
Target Population (Universe)
Accessible Population
CONCEPT OF SAMPLE
SAMPLING
Definitions
PRINCIPLES OF SAMPLING
Based on the Objectives
Systematic
Clearly Defined and Easily Identifiable
Used Throughout the Study
Law of Statistical Regularity
Law of Inertia of Large Numbers
Characteristics of Good Sample
IMPORTANCE OF SAMPLING
Economical
Convenient to Select Sample
Efficiency
Greater Accuracy and Precision of Data
Better Organization
Better Rapport
Limitations of Sampling
SAMPLING PROCESS
Identify the Population of Interest
Describing the Accessible Population and Specifying a Sampling Frame
Specify a Sampling Method
Determine the Sample Size
Implement the Plan
SAMPLING ERRORS
Reasons of the Sampling Errors
NONSAMPLING ERRORS
SAMPLING BIAS
Characteristics of Good Sample
Representative
Free from Bias and Errors
No Substitution and Incompleteness
Appropriate Sample Size
SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
Probability Sampling Technique
Definition of Probability Sampling Method
Features of Probability Sampling
Types of the Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling Technique
Systematic Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Types of Stratified Random Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Advantages
Disadvantages
Multistage Sampling
Multiphase Sampling
Sequential Sampling
NONPROBABILISTIC SAMPLING
Introduction
Use of Nonprobability Sampling
Classification of Nonprobability Sampling
Judgmental Sampling or Purposive Sampling
Advantages
Disadvantages
Quota Sampling
Advantages
Disadvantages
Convenience Sampling
Consecutive Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Advantages
Disadvantages
CHAPTER 9:
Methods of Data Collection
INTRODUCTION
Data
TYPES OF RESEARCH DATA
Qualitative and Quantitative Data
Qualitative Data
Quantitative Data
DATA COLLECTION PLAN
Benefits of Data Collection Planning
Instruction for Developing Data Collection Plan
Existing Data vs. New Data
DIMENSIONS OF DATA COLLECTION APPROACHES
Structure
Quantifiability
Research Obtrusiveness
Objectivity
DEVELOPING DATA COLLECTION PLAN
6 ‘W's of Data Collection
WHAT Data will be Collected?
From WHOM Data is to be Collected?
WHO will Collect Data?
Selecting Research Personnel
Training Data Collectors
WHERE Data will be Collected?
WHEN will the data be Collected?
HOW data will be Collected?
STEPS OF DEVELOPING DATA COLLECTION PLAN
Identifying Data Needs
Selecting Types of Measures
Selecting and Developing Instruments
Pretesting Data Collection Package
Developing Data Collection Forms and Procedures
METHODS AND TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION
Types of Methods and Tools of Data Collection
Principles of Construction of Research Tool
INTERVIEW
Definitions
CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERVIEW
BENEFITS OF INTERVIEW
Limitations of Interviews
Types of Interview
Structured Interview
Unstructured Interview (Nondirective Interview)
Limitations
Semistructured Interview
OTHER TYPES OF INTERVIEW
Personal Interview
Telephone Interview
Focus Group Interview
Strengths
Limitations
Demerits
Depth Interview
Characteristics of Depth Interview
Projective Techniques Interviews
STEPS OF CONDUCTING AN INTERVIEW
Rapport Building
Introduction
Probing
Recording
Closing
CARRYING THE INTERVIEW FORWARD
Advantages of Interview
Disadvantages of Interview
QUESTIONNAIRE
Characteristics of Good Research Questions
Types of Questions
Open-format Questions
Characteristics
Advantages
Disadvantages
Closed Format Questions
Characteristics
Subtypes of Closed-format Questions
Dichotomous Questions
Multiple-choice Questions
Cafeteria Question
Rank-order Questions
Contingency Questions
Rating Questions
Important Question
Likert Questions
Bipolar Questions
Matrix Questions
Guidelines for Designing a Good Questionnaire
Question Construction
Methods of Questionnaire Administration
Postal
Electronic
Handed Directly to the Respondent
Advantages
Disadvantages
OBSERVATION
Meaning of Observation
Definition
Characteristics of Observational Method
Classification of Observational Method
Advantages
Disadvantages
Nonparticipant Observation
Advantages
Disadvantages
Direct Observation
Indirect Observation
Controlled Observation
Uncontrolled Observation
Structured Observation
Strengths of Structured Observation
Weaknesses
Unstructured Observation
Uses of Observation Method
Steps of Effective Observation
Planning for Observation
Execution
Recording
Interpretation
Advantages
Disadvantages
Observation Tools and Recording Devices
Observation Guides
Recording Sheets or Checklist
Field Observation Log
Mechanical Devices
BIOPHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS
Purposes
Basic Physiology with Relevance for Nursing Care
Use of Biophysiologic Measures in Nursing Research
Types
Advantages
Disadvantages
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
Important Projective Techniques
Word Association Test
Sentence Completion Test
Construction Test
Expression Techniques
Drawing Techniques
Thematic Apperception Test
Disadvantages of Projective Techniques
VIGNETTE METHOD
Advantages
VISUAL ANALOGUE SCALE OR VISUAL ANALOG SCALE (VAS)
Advantages of VAS
Limitations
Q Sorts
DEVELOPMENT OF TOOLS
Types of Tools
Functions
Observation Schedule
Interview Guide
Rating Scale
Comparative Scales
Graphic Rating Scales (Uncommon)
Multi-item Scales
Likert Scale
Staple Scales
Guttman Scaling
Semantic Scales
Useful Hints on Construction of Rating Scale
Checklist
Document Schedule/Data Sheet
CONSTRUCTION OF SCHEDULES AND QUESTIONNAIRES
Schedule vs Questionnaire
Determination of the Respondents’ Level
Levels of Measurement and Scaling Technique
Nominal Scale
ORDINAL SCALE
INTERVAL SCALE
RATIO SCALE
Scaling Technique
Definition
Reliability
Definitions
Types of Reliability
Stability Reliability
Test-retest Method
Equivalence Reliability
Homogeneity or Internal Consistency
Validity
Definitions
Types of Validity
Construct Validity
Convergent Validity
Divergent Validity
Content Validity
Face Validity
Criterion Validity
Predictive Validity
Concurrent Validity
Experimental Validity
Statistical Conclusion Validity
Internal Validity
External Validity
Relationship to Internal Validity
Diagnostic Validity
CHAPTER 10:
Analysis of Data and Application of Biostatistics in Nursing Research
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITIONS
ANALYSIS OF QUANTITATIVE DATA
STEPS OF QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Data Preparation (Cleaning and Organizing Data for Analysis)
Describing the Data
Drawing the Inference of the Data or Inferential Statistics
Interpretation of the Data
Strategies for the Effective Interpretations
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Measures to Condense Data
Tables
Graphs and Diagrams
APPLICATION OF STATISTICS
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Definition
Objectives of Central Value
Requisites of Good Averaging
Arithmetic Mean (AM)
Arithmetic Mean in Individual Series
Arithmetic Mean in Discrete Series
Arithmetic Mean In Continuous Series
Merits of Arithmetic Mean
Demerits of Arithmetic Mean
Median
Calculation of Median in Discrete Series
Steps to Calculate
Merits
Demerits
Mode
Calculation of Mode in Discrete Series
Process
Grouping Table
Analysis Table
Finding Mode in Case of Bimodal Distribution
Merits
Demerits
Empirical Relation between Mean, Median and Mode
Geometric Mean
Harmonic Mean
Uses
Merits
Demerits
Relation between AM, GM, and HM
Measures of Dispersion
Range
Merits
Limitations
Percentile
Quartiles
Quartile Deviation
Coefficient of Quartile Deviation
Calculation of Quartiles
Advantages
Disadvantages
Mean Deviation
Calculation
Variance
Standard Deviation (SD)
Types
Merits
Demerits
Coefficient of Variation (CV)
Calculations
Correlation
Types of Correlation
Advantages
The Graph is Straightforward Towards Observation
Disadvantages
Correlation Coefficient
Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient
Regression Definition
Regression Formula
Regression Example
CERTAIN TERMS IN PROBABILITY
Experiment/Observation
SAMPLE SPACE
THEORETICAL DISTRIBUTION
TYPES OF THEORETICAL DISTRIBUTION
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
Characteristics of Normal Probability Curve
Importance of Normal Probability Curve
Uses of Normal Probability Curve
Normal Probability Curve in Terms of Skewness
Platykurtic
Leptokurtic
Mesokurtic
CHI-SQUARE TEST
Chi-square Test Requirements
The Steps of Chi-square Analysis
Expected Frequencies
THE SIMPLEST METHOD OF CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS IN 2 × 2 TABLE
t-test
One Sample t-Test
Paired Sample t-Test
Steps
Assumptions
Unpaired t-Test
Definition
One-way
Two-way
N-way
Assumptions of ANOVA
Techniques of ANOVA
Calculate Variance Between the Samples
Calculate the Variance Within the Samples
Compare the Calculated Value with the Tabulated Value
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE, ANOVA WITH ONE-WAY CALCULATION (Table 10.31)
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE IN TWO-WAY CLASSIFICATION
Two-way
Interpretation
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
A One-way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
Purpose
Assumptions
Characteristics
Assumptions
ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE DATA
Approaches in Analysis
Problem in Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative Data Analysis Process
Steps of Qualitative Data Analysis
Organizing the Data and Identifying Themes
Ordering and Coding of Data
Summarizing Data in Compilation Sheets
Further Summarizing of Data in Narrations, Matrices, Figures, and Quasi-Statistic Tables
Drawing and Verifying Conclusions
Establishing the Validity of Qualitative Data
Computer Analysis of Qualitative Data
CHAPTER 11:
Research Critique
INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF RESEARCH CRITIQUE
Definitions
Importance of Research Critique
Purposes of Critique
Principles of Research Critique
Four Key Aspects of Critique
CRITIQUE SKILLS
Critical Thinking
Logical Reasoning
Knowledge of Research Methodology
Attention to Details
Recognition of Strengths and Weaknesses
CRITIQUE PROCESS FOR QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
Comprehension
Comparison
Analysis
STEPS FOR CRITIQUING QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH STUDIES
Writing Style
Author(s)
Report Title
Abstract
Research Problem
Literature Review
Theoretical Framework
Aims and Objectives, Research Question and Research Hypothesis
Ethical Considerations
Operational Definitions
Research Design
Sample and Sample Size
Data Collection Method
Instrument Design
Validity and Reliability
Analysis and Results
Discussion/Conclusion/Recommendations
References
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH CRITIQUE
Standard I: Descriptive Vividness
Threats to Descriptive Vividness
Standard II: Methodological Congruence
Rigor in Documentation
Introduction
Literature Review
Conceptual Underpinning
Statements of Methods
Data Analysis
Discussion
Threats to Rigor in Documentation
Procedural Rigor
Threats to Procedural Rigor
Ethical Rigor
Auditability
Standard III: Analytical Precision
Standard IV: Theoretical Connectedness
Threats to Theoretical Connectedness
Standard V: Heuristic Relevance
WHAT TO BE AVOID DURING CRITIQUE
CHAPTER 12:
Communication and Utilization of Research
INTRODUCTION
Why Communicate Research Results?
STEPS FOR COMMUNICATING THE RESEARCH
Selecting Proper Channel for Communicating
Identifying the Consumers
Developing an Effective Plan for Writing a Research Report
Decide on Authorship
Deciding about the Content
Preparing Outline of Report
Selection of a Medium
WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
Characteristics of Good Research Report
TYPES OF REPORT
Technical Report
Popular Report
Oral Presentation or Verbal Report
GUIDELINES FOR WRITING RESEARCH REPORT
Develop Thinking
Divide Narration
Minimize the Use of Technical Language or Jargon
Use Visual Aids
Be Objective
Treat Data Confidentiality
Revise and Rewrite
STEPS IN WRITING REPORT
Logical Analysis of the Subject Matter
Preparation of the Final Outline
Preparation of the Rough Draft
Draft the Body
Draft of the Supplementary Information
Draft Preliminary Informations
Rewriting and Polishing the Rough Draft
Preparation of Final Bibliography
Writing the Final Draft
FORMAT OF A THESIS OR DISSERTATION
Preliminary Pages
Cover Page
Certification and Declaration
Acknowledgment
Index/Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of the Figures
List of the Abbreviations
Main Text
Chapter I
Chapter II: Literature Review
Chapter III: Methodology (Materials and Methods)
Chapter IV: Analysis and Interpretation of Data
Chapter V: Discussion, Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
End Matter
References
Bibliography
Appendix/Annexure
Writing the References/Bibliography
Difference Between References and Bibliography
VANCOUVER STYLE OF REFERENCES
Citation within the Text
PUBLICATION OF ARTICLE IN JOURNAL
Preparing the Manuscript
Content of Journal Articles
Title
Types of Title
Authors
Abstract
Keywords
Introduction
Discussion Section
Acknowledgments
References
Checklist
Style of Research Journal Articles
Compactness
Jargon
Objectivity
Statistical Information
UTILIZATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
Barriers in Utilization of Nursing Research
Factors Related to Nurses
Nursing Research Factors
Organizational Factors
Communication Factors
Strategies to Facilitate Utilization of Nursing Research
Nurse Educators
Nurse Researchers
Nurse Administrators
Nurse Clinicians
DEVELOPMENT AND PRESENTING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Meaning of Research Proposal
Purposes of Proposal
GOLDEN RULES FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Type of Proposals
Solicited Proposals
Unsolicited Proposals
Preproposals
Continuation or Noncompeting Proposals
Renewal or Competing Proposals
Golden Rules for Proposal Writing
Contents
Style
Process
IMPORTANCE OF A PROPOSAL BEFORE CONDUCTING A RESEARCH
FORMAT OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Title Page
Title
About Investigators
The Real Content of Research Proposal
Introduction
Objectives of the Study
Formulating Hypothesis
Methodology
Budgetary Estimates
Bibliography
COMPUTER IN NURSING RESEARCH
Research Problem, Purpose, Main Question, or Hypothesis
Literature Review
Conceptual Framework
Research Design
Sampling
Research Instruments and Data Collection
Legal and Ethical Considerations
Data Analysis Methods
Guidelines for Using Computer in Research
INDEX
TOC
Index
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